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GREAT  LIVES: 


A 


COURSE  OR  HISTORY 


BIOGRAPHIES. 


BY 

J.  I.  MOMBERT,  D.D., 

AUTHOR  OF  “THE  ENGLISH  VERSIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE,” 
“TYNDALE’S  PENTATEUCH,”  ETC.,  ETC. 


LEACH,  SHE  WELL,  & SANBORN. 

BOSTON  AND  NEW  YORK. 


t . 


t • 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1886,  by 
J.  I.  MOMBERT,  D.D., 

in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


TYPOGRAPHY  BY 

J.  S.  Cushing  & Co. 


PRESSWORK  BY 

Henry  h.  Clark  & Co. 


“ The  history  of  the  world  can  he  found  in  the  history  of  a dozen 
names.”  — Archdeacon  Farrar. 

“ If  you  would  understand  history,  study  men.”  — Charles  Kingsley. 


It  being  impossible , as  well  as  undesirable , to  present  all  the 
facts  of  history , that  selection  is  best  which  gives  the  clearest  and 
most  correct  outline  with  the  most  economy  of  space,  and  so  that 
the  effect  of  the  part  narrated  may  be  most  nearly  the  same  as 
if  the  whole  were  given. 


PREFACE. 


The  simple  narratives  here  presented  to  the  public  trace  in 
brief  and  compendious  form  a number  of  Great  Lives  from 
the  legendary  period  of  Greece  to  the  present  time. 

They  are  the  lives  of  representative  and  central  characters 
in  many  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  events  in 
History. 

If  44  the  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man,”  this  method  of 
studying  History  cannot  fail  to  benefit  all  desirous  of  imitating 
the  virtues  of  the  good,  of  shunning  the  vices  of  the  evil,  and 
of  avoiding  errors  which  have  destroyed  the  happiness,  and 
fostered  the  misery,  of  millions  of  our  fellow-men. 

This  little  volume  is  sent  forth  as  a help  to  the  student, 
a remembrancer  to  the  scholar,  and  a guide  to  busy  people 
who  have  neither  the  leisure  to  read,  nor  perhaps  the  means  to 
buy,  larger  and  more  exhaustive  works. 

Brief  References  at  the  end  of  each  Life  to  good  authorities, 
not  a few  of  which  indicate  the  first  sources  of  historical  lore, 
will  enable  the  reader  to  continue  with  great  profit  this  charm- 
ing and  most  important  study. 

To  each  of  the  three  Divisions  of  the  subject  has  been 
subjoined  a Chronological  Survey  which  may  be  useful  for 
recapitulation  and  reference. 

A Vocabulary,  which  has  almost  grown  into  a miniature 
cyclopaedia,  supplies  much  valuable  information. 


CONTENTS, 


i. 

ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

A.  Greek. 

TAGE 

Hercules  1 

Lycurgus 9 

Solon 15 

Miltiades 21 

Leonidas  and  Themistocles  ......  27 

Pericles 35 

Alcibiades  and  Socrates 41 

Alexander  the  Great  ........  51 

B.  Roman. 

Romulus 60 

Tarquinius  the  Proud 64 

Duilius  and  Regulus 70 

Hannibal  . 75 

Scipio  Africanus  Junior 83 

Julius  Caesar 88 

Constantine  the  Great 100 

Attila  . 106 


yin 


CONTENTS. 


II. 

MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

PAGE 

Justinian 115 

Mohammed 122 

Boniface 130 

Charlemagne 135 

Alfred  the  Great 147 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon 155 

Columbus 160 

III. 

MODERN  HISTORY. 

Martin  Luther 175 

Elizabeth 183 

Peter  the  Great 192 

Frederic  the  Great 204 

George  Washington  . 222 

Benjamin  Franklin 240 

Napoleon  1 253 

Abraham  Lincoln 273 

Ulysses  S.  Grant 284 

IV. 


Pronouncing  and  Explanatory  Vocabulary  . 


307 


I.  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


C\ 


I. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


HERCULES. 


One  of  the  fabled  gods  of  the  Greeks  was  called  Zeus,  and 


believed  to  rule  heaven  ; he  married  Alcmene,  daugh- 


[l  261  (?) 


ter  of  the  king  of  Thebes,  and  had  a son,  called  Her- 
cules, who  became  very  strong  and  proved  his  great  strength 
even  as  a young  infant  by  killing  two  serpents  that  had  slipped 
into  his  cradle.  He  was  brought  up  by  Amphitryon,  who 
taught  him  to  ride  in  a chariot,  and  got  others  to  teach  him  to 
wrestle,  to  use  the  bow,  to  fight  with  heavy  armor,  to  sing,  and 
to  play  the  lyre.  He  had  the  misfortune  to  slay  Linus,  his 
music  teacher,  and  in  punishment  was  sent  by  Amphitryon  to 
feed  his  cattle. 

As  a youth,  Hercules  one  day  came  to  a place  where  two 
roads  parted,  and  wondering  which  to  choose,  saw  before  him 
two  goddesses,  the  one  exceeding  beautiful,  the  other  also  fair, 
but  less  radiant  than  the  first.  Came  to  him  the  beautiful, 
bade  him  follow  her,  and  promised  delightful  reward.  “ Who 
art  thou  ? ” asked  the  youth ; and  the  goddess,  smiling,  said, 
“My  friends  call  me  Pleasure,  my  enemies,  Vice.”  “And 
whither  dost  thou  lead  me?”  inquired  Hercules  of  the  other, 
who  said,  “ I will  lead  thee  to  toil  and  peril,  but  promise  thee 
immortality,  and  honor  and  glory  with  the  gods  and  with  men, 
if  thou  wilt  follow  me.”  • 


2 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


Her  words  touched  his  heart,  and  thrusting  aside  the  for- 
ward Pleasure,  he  pledged  himself  to  Virtue,  who  fulfilled  her 
promise,  as  will  appear  from  the  twelve  labors  he  performed. 

In  those  days  the  gods  of  Greece  were  said  to  make  known 
their  wishes  to  men  by  means  of  oracles  — a word  which  some- 
times means  these  directions  themselves,  and  sometimes  the 
places  where  they  were  uttered.  The  most  famous  oracle 
was  that  of  Delphi,  which  directed  Hercules  to  go  to 
Eurystheus,  king  of  Argolis,  to  learn  from  him  what  he  was 
to  do. 

That  king  took  him  into  his  service,  and  bade  him  fetch  the 
skin  of  the  Nemean  lion,  a brute  of  monster  size  and  strength, 
the  terror  of  all  Argolis.  That  lion,  descended  from  a fabled 
monster,  ravaged  the  land  and  cruelly  destroyed  the  people  ; 
his  skin  was  so  shaggy  and  tough  that  no  arrow  could  pierce 
it ; and,  as  in  those  days  gunpowder  was  unknown,  the  feat  to 
secure  his  skin  was  very  hard.  Some  say  that  Hercules  blocked 
up  one  of  the  openings  of  the  lion’s  den,  and  entering  through 
the  other,  met  and  strangled  the  brute ; others,  that  he  met  it 
in  the  open  air,  attacked  it  with  his  fists,  and  slew  it  with  his 
club.  One  thing  is  sure  : he  killed  the  monster,  delivered  the 
land  from  its  cruelty,  and  returned  to  Eurystheus,  carrying 
the  skin,  like  a cloak,  on  his  shoulders.  This  was  the  first 
labor  of  Hercules. 

In  the  same  country  of  Argolis,  in  a swamp  near  Lerna, 
dwelt  another  monster,  like  the  lion,  an  offspring  of  Typhon, 
but  unlike  him  in  all  other  respects.  It  was  terrible  to  look 
upon,  for  it  was  a kind  of  serpent  with  nine,  some  say  with  a 
hundred,  heads,  which,  though  cut  off,  would  forthwith  grow 
again  ; it  was  more  terrible  to  draw  near  its  hiding-place,  for 
it  would  suddenly  burst  upon  man  or  beast,  tear  and  devour 
them.  That  monster  was  called  Hydra,  and  it  was  the  task  of 
Hercules  to  destroy  it.  He  had  a friend  called  Iolaos,  who 
helped  him  to  perform  it.  At  his  bidding,  Iolaos  set  the  wood 
on  fire  and  brought  him  a burning  brand  ; then  Hercules  began 


1261.] 


HERCULES. 


3 


to  cut  off,  one  oy  one,  the  heads  of  the  Hydra,  and,  to  prevent 
their  growing  again,  burned  out  the  wounds  with  the  brand. 
Thus  he  conquered  the  monster,  and  dipped  his  arrows  in  its 
gall,  which  was  a deadly  poison,  and  made  their  wounds  incur- 
able. This  was  his  second  labor. 

His  third  task  was  to  catch,  and  bring  alive  to  Mycenae,  the 
stag  of  Ceryneia  in  Arcadia.  This  animal  had  golden  antlers 
and  brazen  feet,  and  ran  so  fast  that  no  arrow  could  reach  it. 
Hercules  followed  it  for  a whole  year,  but  at  last  hunted  it 
down,  and  having  wounded  it  with  an  arrow,  caught,  and 
carried  it  on  his  shoulders  to  Mycenae. 

Again,  he  was  ordered  to  catch  and  bring  alive,  a savage 
boar,  called  the  Erymanthian  boar,  after  Mount  Erymanthus, 
from  which  it  came  down  into  the  plains  of  Arcadia  and  did 
great  damage.  Hercules  chased  it  through  the  deep  snow, 
caught  it  in  a net,  and  took  it  alive  to  Eurystheus,  who  was 
so  frightened  that  he  hid  himself  in  a cask. 

At  that  time  Augeas  was  king  of  Elis  ; he  was  very  rich  in 
cattle,  but  kept  his  many  stables  in  a dreadfully  filthy  condition. 
Three  thousand  head  of  cattle  had  stood  in  those  stables, 
which  had  not  been  cleaned  for  thirty  years.  Eurystheus 
ordered  Hercules  to  clean  them  in  one  day.  This  seemed  to 
be  impossible,  but  Hercules  did  not  shrink  from  doing  it.  He 
went  and  turned  the  rivers  Alpheus  and  Peneus  through  the 
stables,  and  thus  performed  the  fifth  task. 

After  that  he  was  ordered  to  drive  away  the  Stymphalian 
birds,  which  were  found  in  countless  swarms  in  the  thickly 
wooded  land  about  Lake  Stymphalus  in  Arcadia.  They  were 
terrible  creatures  with  brazen  beaks,  claws,  and  wings,  which 
used  their  feathers  as  arrows  and  devoured  man  and  beast. 
Hercules  could  not  have  performed  this  work  without  the  help 
of  a goddess,  called  Athena,  who  gave  him  a brazen  rattle, 
which  made  an  awful  noise.  With  this  rattle  he  frightened 
the  birds  out  of  their  hiding-places,  and  killed  them  with  his 
arrows  as  they  tried  to  fly  away.  Although  he  could  not  kill 


4 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C„ 

all,  he  succeeded  in  driving  them  off,  and  ridding  the  country 
of  the  scourge.  That  was  his  sixth  work. 

His  next  task  was  to  catch  alive  the  mad  bull  which  laid 
waste  the  fields  of  Crete,  and  was  known  as  the  Cretan  bull. 
He  not  only  caught  him,  but  made  him  so  tame  that  he  rode  on 
his  back,  and  took  him  to  Mycenae. 

Not  knowing  what  to  do  with  him,  Eurystheus  set  him  free 
again. 

In  those  days  there  lived  in  Thrace  a very  cruel  king,  called 
Diomedes,  who  owned  a breed  of  wild  mares  which  he  fed  with 
human  flesh.  Strangers  who  came  to  his  country  he  made  pris- 
oners, and  flung  them  before  those  terrible  mares,  which  ate  them 
up.  Eurystheus  told  Hercules  to  fetch  those  mares  to  Mycenae. 
When  he  came  to  Thrace  he  managed  to  seize  the  cruel  Diome- 
des, flung  him  before  the  mares,  which  devoured  him  and  then 
became  so  tame  that  he  had  no  trouble  in  taking  them  to  Eurys- 
theus. The  latter  caused  them  to  be  driven  into  the  mountains, 
where  wild  beasts  destroyed  them. 

Eurystheus  had  a daughter,  called  Admete,  who  desired  to 
have  the  girdle  of  Hippolite,  the  queen  of  the  Amazons,  a race 
of  warrior  women  who  lived  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea.  That  girdle  was  very  beautiful,  a present  from  Ares,  the 
queen’s  father  : she  greatly  prized  and  wore  it  as  a badge  of  her 
royalty. 

This  famous  girdle  Hercules  was  ordered  to  fetch.  Accom- 
panied by  a number  of  friends,  he  sailed  in  a boat,  and,  after 
sundry  adventures,  landed  in  the  country  of  the  Amazons, 
whose  queen  received  him  kindly  and  promised  him  her  girdle. 
But  a goddess,  called  Hera,  or  Juno,  an  enemy  of  Hercules, 
disguised  as  an  Amazon,  spread  the  report  that  a stranger  was 
about  to  rob  their  queen.  The  Amazons  rushed  to  arms  ; and 
Hercules,  thinking  that  the  queen  had  deceived  him,  gave  them 
battle,  killed  the  queen,  and  secured  the  girdle.  Some  say  that 
he  did  not  kill  her,  but  that  Melanippe,  the  queen’s  sister,  was 
wounded,  taken  prisoner,  and  exchanged  for  the  girdle,  which 


1261.] 


HERCULES. 


5 


Hercules  took  to  Admete,  and  thus  performed  the  ninth 
labor. 

His  next  work  was  the  difficult  and  dangerous  task  of  fetch- 
ing the  oxen  of  Geryones,  a giant  of  monster  size,  who  had 
three  bodies,  lived  in  the  island  of  Erytheia,  and  owned  a 
famous  herd  of  cattle,  guarded  by  the  giant  Eurytion,  aud  a 
two-headed  dog,  called  Orthrus.  Ou  his  way  to  the  distant 
place,  he  set  up  two  pillars,  one  on  each  side  of  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar,  which  the  ancients  called  the  Pillars  of  Hercules. 
Ou  landing,  he  was  attacked  by  the  giant  keeper  and  his  dog, 
but  he  slew  first  the  dog  and  then  the  keeper.  The  herd  seemed 
to  be  his,  but  on  his  way  to  the  sea,  Geryones  stopped  him  ; 
they  fought  together,  Hercules  slew  the  giant,  and  secured  the 
oxen,  which  he  finally  brought  to  Eurystheus,  and  thus  com- 
pleted the  ten  labors. 

Eurystheus  thought  that  two  of  them  had  not  been  done 
right,  and  gave  him  two  others  in  addition.  He  ordered  Her- 
cules to  fetch  the  golden  apples  of  the  Hesperides.  This  was 
a very  hard  task,  for  at  first  he  did  not  know  where  they  grew. 
He  had  to  travel  hither  and  thither  for  a long  while,  and  after 
many  and  perilous  adventures,  finally  learned  from  Nereus  that 
the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides  lay  on  Mount  Atlas,  in  the 
country  of  the  Hyperboreans.  The  Hesperides  were  nymphs 
or  goddesses  charged  to  guard  waters,  woods,  and  mountains. 
These  nymphs  had  been  set  to  watch  a wonderful  tree  which  bore 
golden  fruit,  whose  beautiful  glitter  led  them  to  eat  of  the  fruit, 
which  was  forbidden  them.  Then  the  goddess  Juno  appointed  a 
terrible  dragon,  called  Ladon,  to  watch  the  tree.  Now  Nereus 
had  told  Hercules  it  were  better  that  Atlas,  who  bore  the 
heavens  on  his  shoulders,  should  go  for  the  apples,  and  not 
himself ; so  when  he  came  to  Atlas  he  begged  him  to  go,  and 
offered  to  do  his  work.  Atlas  agreed  and  Hercules  took  his 
place.  The  former  understood  how  to  put  the  dragon  to  sleep, 
to  outwit  the  nymphs,  and  to  carry  three  apples  to  Hercules, 
but  told  him  he  intended  to  take  them  to  Eurystheus  himself, 


6 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


and  that  the  hero  should  continue  to  carry  the  heavens.  Her- 
cules made  believe  lie  would,  and  asked  Atlas  to  oblige  him  by 
taking  his  place  for  a little  time,  until  he  had  found  some- 
thing wherewith  to  cover  his  head  to  sustain  the  burden.  Atlas 
agreed,  cast  down  the  apples,  and  took  up  his  old  burden, 
when  Hercules  seized  them,  and  hastened  away. 

But  the  most  difficult  of  all  his  labors  was  the  twelfth  and  last , 
for  this  was  nothing  less  than  to  fetch  Cerberus  from  the  lower 
world.  It  was  a horrid  monster  dog  with  three  heads,  the  tail 
of  a serpent,  and  a mane  whose  hairs  were  the  heads  of  poison- 
ous snakes.  When  Hercules,  guided  by  Hermes,  reached  the 
presence  of  Pluto,  the  ruler  of  the  lower  world,  and  had  made 
known  his  purpose,  the  king  gave  him  leave  to  carry  it  out,  but 
forbade  him  to  do  it  by  force  of  arms.  Fearless,  and  without 
any  other  protection  than  his  lion’s-skin  and  breastplate,  Her- 
cules found  the  monster  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Acheron, 
clutched  his  throat  with  one  hand,  and  his  legs  with  the  other, 
deaf  to  the  forbidding  bark  of  his  three  heads,  and  undismayed 
by  the  hisses  of  the  snakes,  dragged  him  to  the  light  of  day, 
and  set  him  before  Eurystheus  ; awe-struck,  he  bade  Hercules 
let  him  go  free,  who  thereupon  took  him  back  to  the  lower 
world. 

Having  now  at  last  become  his  own  master,  Hercules  re- 
turned to  Thebes,  but  had  the  misfortune  of  losing  his  mind, 
and  of  committing  in  that  sad  condition  not  a few  acts  of  vio- 
lence. Occasionally,  however,  his  madness  left  him,  and  then 
he  was  filled  with  grief  and  shame  for  what  he  had  done.  He 
went  to  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  and  being  told  that  he  could  not 
be  cured  unless  he  became  a slave  again,  entered  the  service  of 
Omphale,  queen  of  Lydia,  a kingdom  in  the  western  part  of 
Asia  Minor.  She  had  great  power  over  him,  for  she  made  him 
wear  women’s  clothes,  and  spin  wool,  while  she  put  on  his  lion’s- 
skin. 

When  his  three  years’  service  was  over,  he  left  her  and  per- 
formed many  acts  of  valor ; afterwards  he  married  Deianeira, 


1261.] 


HERCULES. 


7 


the  daughter  of  (Eneus,  who  had  promised  her  to  the  bravest 
of  her  suitors.  Hercules  fought  for  her  with  Achelous,  and 
coming  off  conqueror,  secured  the  prize. 

They  had  not  been  married  long  when  Hercules  at  a meal 
accidentally  killed  a boy  called  Eunomus,  and  was  compelled 
by  the  law  of  the  country  to  go  into  banishment.  Deianeira, 
his  wife,  of  course,  went  with  him. 

On  their  journey  they  had  to  cross  the  river  Euenus,  where 
a centaur  called  Nessus  made  a living  by  carrying  travellers  on 
his  back  across.  This  centaur,  the  upper  part  of  whose  body 
was  that  of  a man,  but  his  lower  part  that  of  a horse  with  four 
feet,  carried  Deianeira,  while  Hercules  forded  the  river.  The 
centaur  was  rude  to  her,  and  Hercules  hearing  her  cry,  pierced 
him  with  an  arrow;  Nessus,  mortally  wounded,  bade  Deianeira 
save  his  blood  as  a sure  means  of  making  Hercules  always  love 
her.  So  she  carried  some  away  with  her. 

Not  long  after  this  he  conquered  Eurytus  and  his  sons,  and 
captured  Iole,  his  daughter,  whom  he  carried  awajT  as  a pris- 
oner. Now  Iole  was  very  beautiful,  and  Deianeira,  becoming- 
jealous  of  her,  remembered  the  blood  of  Nessus,  and  dipped  in 
it  the  garment  which  Hercules  used  to  wear  when  he  went  to 
sacrifice.  He  had  hardly  put  it  on  when  his  body  began  to 
ache  with  intolerable  pains.  It  seems  that  the  arrow  with  which 
he  had  killed  Nessus  was  poisoned,  that  the  poison,  of  course, 
had  poisoned  his  blood,  and  that  his  garment  from  having  been 
dipped  in  it  had  also  become  poisoned.  In  his  agony  he  tried 
to  fling  it  aside,  but  could  not,  for  it  stuck  so  close  to  his  body, 
that  he  had  to  tear  off  whole  pieces  of  flesh.  In  such  sore 
plight  he  was  carried  to  Trachis,  where  Deianeira,  in  the 
despair  of  her  grief,  took  her  own  life  ; at  his  bidding,  Hercules 
was  taken  up  to  Mount  CEta ; there  he  ascended  a pile  of 
wood,  which  a shepherd  set  on  fire,  when  Jupiter  sent  a cloud 
from  heaven,  and  carried  him,  amid  thunder  and  lightning,  to 
Olympus,  where  he  became  one  of  the  immortals. 


8 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


A full  and  consecutive  account  of  the  Mythology  and  the  Heroic 
Age  of  Ancient  Greece  is  found  in  Grote’s  “ History  of  Greece,”  vol. 
I.  pp.  47-391,  New  York,  1883,  and  satisfactory  notices  of  mythologi- 
cal persons  in  alphabetical  order,  generally  with  references  to  classical 
authors,  are  given  in  Smith,  “ Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography  and  Mythology,”  3 vols.,  London,  1849,  1880. 


1100-776.] 


LYCURGUS. 


9 


LYCURGUS. 

The  city  of  Sparta,  also  called  Lacedaemon,  was  the  about 
capital  of  Laconia,  situated  at  the  southern  extremity  77*> 
of  the  peninsula  of  the  Peloponnesus.  It  had  been  con-  about 
quered  by  the  Dorians,  and  was  ruled  by  two  kings,  noo 
One  of  them,  called  Eunomus,  had  two  sons,  Polydectes  and 
Lycurgus.  The  former  succeeded  his  father,  but  died  soon  ; 
his  widow,  desiring  Lycurgus  to  share  the  throne  with  her,  pro- 
posed to  destroy  the  infant  son  of  Polydectes  ; but  Lycurgus, 
feigning  consent,  took  the  child  and  showed  him  to  the  people 
as  their  king,  calling  him,  because  of  the  joy  with  which  they 
greeted  him,  Charilaus,  signifying  joy  of  the  people. 

The  mother,  out  of  revenge,  falsely  charged  Lycurgus  with 
ill  designs  upon  the  child,  which  led  him  to  leave  Sparta,  and 
spend  many  years  in  extensive  travels,  said  to  have  extended  as 
far  as  Iberia,  Egypt,  and  India.  During  his  absence,  the  affairs 
of  Sparta  had  gone  from  bad  to  worse  ; and  the  people  entreated 
Lycurgus  on  his  return  to  restore  order.  King  Charilaus  at 
first  did  not  favor  the  movement,  but  afterwards  stood  by  his 
uncle,  who  at  once  framed  a body  of  laws  bearing  upon  the 
government,  as  well  as  upon  the  public  and  private  life  of  the 
people  ; their  adoption,  however,  met  with  great  opposition, 
and,  in  one  of  the  riots  which  they  occasioned,  the  people  tried 
to  stone  Lycurgus,  who  sought  refuge  in  a temple,  when  a 
youth,  called  Alcander,  struck  him  and  put  out  his  eye.  Turn- 
ing to  his  pursuers,  he  silently  showed  them  his  bleeding  face  ; 
overcome  with  shame  and  sorrow,  they  accompanied  Lycurgus 
to  his  home,  and  delivered  to  him  the  offender.  The  lawgiver 
dismissed  the  people,  thanking  them  for  their  conduct,  and 
without  a harsh  word  bade  the  youth  become  his  servant.  He 


10 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


obeyed,  learned  to  love  liis  great  master,  and  was  never  more 
happy  than  in  proclaiming  his  praise. 

In  memory  of  this  occurrence,  Lycurgus  built  a temple  in 
honor  of  Minerva,  which  he  called  Optiletis , because  in  the 
Doric  dialect  the  word  optilos  signifies  an  eye.  When  at  last 
all  opposition  to  his  laws  had  ceased,  and  they  had  been  sol- 
emnly ratified  by  the  people,  swearing  that  they  would  observe 
them  unchanged  until  his  return  from  a journey,  he  set  out  for 
Delphi,  and  there  asked  the  oracle  if  his  laws  were  good,  and 
if  they  sufficed  to  make  the  Spartans  virtuous  and  happy.  The 
reply  came  that  the  laws  were  perfect,  and  that  the  Spartans 
would  be  the  most  glorious  and  prosperous  people  as  long  as 
they  observed  them.  He  sent  a copy  of  this  reply  to  Sparta, 
but  never  returned  himself.  Some  say  that  from  love  for  his 
country  he  starved  himself  to  death ; but  the  truth  is,  that  the 
time,  the  place,  and  the  circumstances  of  his  death  are  not 
known . 

Sparta  had  two  kings,  not  chosen,  but  the  sons  succeeding 
their  fathers;  such  kings  are  called  hereditary.  The  circum- 
stance that  Aristodemus  had  left  twin  sons,  Eurysthenes  and 
Procles,  as  successors,  is  said  to  be  the  origin  of  this  peculiar 
institution.  These  kings  were  high  priests,  chief  commanders 
of  the  army,  and  the  presiding  officers  in  the  assembly  of  the 
people.  They  had  five  ministers  or  advisers,  called  ephors , 
who  were  chosen  every  year  from  the  people,  and  were  the  real 
rulers. 

Sparta  had  also  a senate,  called  gerusia , or  council  of  elders, 
composed  of  twenty-eight,  or,  counting  the  kings,  of  thirty 
members,  who  were  elected  for  life  from  men  not  under  sixty 
years  of  age.  It  was  their  duty  to  consider  every  law  before 
it  was  given  to  the  assembly  of  the  people,  and  to  decide  as 
judges  all  criminal  cases  of  life  or  death.  In  the  assembly  of 
the  people,  there  was  no  debate  in  public ; and  all  matters  were 
voted  upon  by  yeas  and  nays. 

The  population  of  Laconia  consisted  of  Spartans,  who  were 


1100-776.] 


LYCURGUS. 


11 


the  ruling  class  ; of  villagers,  called  periceci , like  the  Spartans, 
free,  though  bound  to  obey  the  laws  which  they  did  not  help  to 
make  ; and  of  serfs,  called  lielots , who,  though  not  exactly 
slaves,  were  bound  to  the  land  owned  by  their  masters.  They 
are  thought  to  have  been  originally  prisoners  of  war ; and  their 
masters  were  always  afraid  of  them,  for  they  hated  their 
oppressors ; and  it  was  said  of  them  that  they  would  gladly 
u have  eaten  the  flesh  of  the  Spartans  raw.” 

Being  surrounded  by  enemies,  the  Spartans  were  naturally  a 
nation  of  soldiers  ; and  the  laws  of  Lycurgus  were  designed  to 
train  them  for  war  and  make  them  invincible  in  battle. 

Every  new-born  child  was  publicly  examined,  and  if  weakly 
or  in  any  way  deformed,  taken  to  Mount  Taygetus  to  perish. 
In  order  to  harden  them,  they  were  compelled  to  wear  the  same 
garment  summer  and  winter,  live  on  spare  and  coarse  diet,  and 
to  become  early  proficient  in  running,  swimming,  and  throwing 
stones.  At  the  age  of  seven,  children  were  taken  from  their 
parents,  and  placed  in  the  public  schools,  where  all  lived, 
learned,  and  played  together.  The  places  where,  lightly  clad, 
they  exercised  were  called  gymnasia , from  a Greek  word  which 
means  naked,  or  lightly  clad. 

Their  education  at  school  w^as  not  like  yours.  They  did  not 
study  much ; they  were  taught  a little  reading  and  writing,  and 
the  art  of  using  the  least  number  of  words  in  speaking ; the 
main  things  for  them  to  learn  were  implicit  obedience  to  their 
superiors,  respect  for  their  elders,  endurance  in  hardship,  and 
victory  in  contests.  These  are  certainly  most  praiseworthy,  and 
I hope  3rou  may  learn  to  excel  in  them,  but  I want  you  to  detest 
some  of  the  things  the  young  Spartans  were  taught.  Because 
soldiers  must  be  not  only  brave,  but  also  wise  and  provident, 
the  Spartan  boys  were  encouraged  to  practise  cunning,  and  even 
theft.  Being  always  more  or  less  hungry  because  of  their  scant 
fare,  they  tried  to  pick  and  steal  whatever  they  could  as  regular 
sneak  thieves,  and  when  caught  in  the  act,  were  punished  with 
fasting,  not  for  having  stolen,  but  for  having  done  it  clumsily. 


12 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


They  were  so  afraid  of  being  found  out,  that  a boy  who  had 
stolen  a young  fox  and  concealed  it  under  his  garment  allowed 
the  animal  to  tear  and  bite  him  to  death  without  uttering  a cry. 
This  example  is  sometimes  cited  also  in  proof  of  their  great 
self-command,  and  it  is  well  known,  that  naughty  children  were 
publicly  whipped  in  the  temple  of  Diana  until  the  blood  came, 
without  a cry,  or  even  an  expression  of  pain,  and  that  many 
actually  died  under  the  punishment. 

Fear  in  darkness  or  solitude,  the  tears  and  cries  of  pain,  the 
youngest  children  were  taught  to  detest  as  cowardly  ; therefore 
cowardice  was  the  greatest  disgrace,  and  flight  in  battle  infamy. 
A Spartan  mother  would  give  to  her  son  a shield  on  going  into 
war,  saying,  “ Return  with  it,  or  upon  it.”  Another  Spartan 
mother,  hearing  that  her  son  had  died  in  battle,  asked,  u Did 
he  win?”  and  learning  that  he  did,  continued,  “ That’s  why  I 
gave  birth  to  him,  that  he  might  know  how  to  die  for  his 
country.” 

The  education  of  such  mothers  must  in  many  respects  have 
been  like  that  of  their  husbands.  The  girls  were  taught  gym- 
nastics, and  became  skilled  in  running,  wrestling,  and  boxing. 
At  the  age  of  twenty  they  usually  married,  and  though  they 
saw  not  much  of  their  husbands,  they  were  greatly  respected  by 
them,  and  their  lot  was  far  happier  than  that  of  the  women  of 
other  lands. 

A Spartan  became  of  age  at  thirty,  and  was  not  allowed  to 
marry  before.  After  his  marriage  he  neither  lived  with  his 
wife,  nor  took  his  meals  at  home.  His  time  was  fully  occupied 
with  military  duties,  and  he  was  bound  to  eat  at  the  public 
mess  and  sleep  in  the  public  barracks. 

This  public  mess  all  Spartan  men,  even  their  kings,  were 
bound  to  frequent.  Fifteen  persons  sat  at  one  table.  Each 
person  had  to  furnish  a fixed  quantity  of  flour,  cheese,  wine, 
and  figs,  and  to  contribute  a certain  amount  of  money  for  meat. 
Children  also  were  allowed  to  be  present,  and  taught  the  man- 
ners and  wisdom  of  their  elders,  especially  discreet  silence ; 


1100-776] 


LYCURGUS. 


13 


whoever  entered  the  room  was  told  by  the  oldest  of  the  com- 
pany, 44  Not  a word  of  what  is  said  here  must  be  carried  out 
there,”  that  is,  through  the  door  to  which  he  was  pointing. 

The  meal  was  very  simple,  and  the  daily  dish  was  the  famous 
black  broth,  or  pottage  of  pork,  blood,  vinegar,  and  salt.  The 
old  people  were  very  fond  of  it,  and  gave  the  meat  to  the 
younger.  A certain  king  secured  a Spartan  cook  on  purpose 
to  have  him  make  the  black  broth.  Tasting  it  he  found  it  so 
bad,  that  he  scolded  the  cook,  who  replied,  44  Of  course  you  do 
not  like  it,  for  it  is  not  good  with  seasoning,  and  that  is  a bath 
in  the  Eurotas,  before  you  eat  it.”  This  is  an  old  form  of  the 
homely  proverb  that  44  hunger  is  the  best  sauce.” 

Lycurgus,  in  order  to  prevent  the  people  becoming  miserly 
and  dissatisfied,  divided  all  the  land  in  equal  portions,  so  that 
every  Spartan  owned  as  much  land  as  his  neighbor,  and  intro- 
duced iron  money,  which  had  so  little  value,  and  was  so  large 
and  heavy,  that  nobody  thought  of  hoarding  it ; two  hundred 
dollars  of  that  money  filled  a large  room,  and  made  a good  load 
for. two  oxen  to  draw.  This  may  have  been  successful  for  a 
time,  but  not  very  long,  for  according  to  an  old  Greek  proverb 
the  Spartans  of  a later  age  must  have  been  very  close,  for  it  ran 
thus,  44  Much  money  goes  into  Sparta,  but  none  comes  out.” 

In  times  of  peace,  the  public  life  at  Sparta  was  pleasant,  for 
the  public  meals,  the  festivals,  the  chase,  and  the  games  afforded 
much  diversion  to  the  people.  They  also  loved  to  sing  and  play 
the  lyre. 

The  country  of  the  Spartans  was  called  Laconia,  and  because 
their  language  was  pointed  and  telling,  we  still  call  to  this  day 
a short,  pithy,  and  witty  speech,  laconic . 

Lycurgus  himself  was  very  witty.  Being  asked  by  the  Spar- 
tans what  they  should  do  to  keep  away  their  enemies,  he  re- 
plied, 44  Remain  poor,  and  covet  not  to  have  more  than  your 
neighbor.”  When  they  asked  his  advice  about  building  walls 
round  their  city,  he  said,  44  A city  surrounded  by  brave  men 
has  the  best  walls.” 


14 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


The  following  are  examples  of  laconic  replies.  An  Athenian 
orator  once  said  in  the  hearing  of  a Spartan,  that  the  Lacedae- 
monians were  an  ignorant  people.  44  You  are  right/’  replied  the 
Spartan,  44  for  of  all  the  Greeks  we  alone  have  learned  nothing 
bad  from  you.”  Some  one  asked  Archidamidas 1 to  tell  him  the 
population  of  Sparta.  6 4 Enough/’  he  said,  4 4 to  drive  off  the 
wicked.”  A troublesome  questioner  desired  a Spartan  to  de- 
scribe the  best  citizen  of  Sparta,  and  received  the  startling 
reply,  44  He  who  resembles  you  least.” 

A Spartan  was  once  invited  to  go  and  hear  a man  who  was 
famous  for  imitating  the  nightingale,  and  declined,  saying,  44 1 
have  often  heard  the  nightingale  itself.” 

REFERENCES. 

Plutarch's  44  Lycurgus  " ; Haase's  edition  of  Xenophon’s  44  Lacedse- 
monian  Republic/'  and  Aristotle’s  44 Politics"  contain  the  ancient 
literature.  Grote,  44  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  I.  pp.  463-506;  Smith, 
44  History  of  Greece,"  pp.  60-71;  Smith,  44  Dictionary,"  etc.,  under 
44  Lycurgus." 


1 Plutarch  being  the  only  writer  who  mentions  Archidamidas,  it  is 
thought  that  he  may  have  confounded  him  with  Archidamus,  the  name  of 
several  Spartan  kings,  of  one  of  whom  iElianus  mentions  the  following 
anecdote : — 

An  old  man  of  Cos,  being  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Sparta,  and  ashamed 
of  his  white  hair,  dyed  it  black ; and,  thus  disguised,  entered  the  council 
and  stated  the  object  of  his  mission.  Archidamus  then  rose  and  said : 
44  What  good  can  be  expected  of  a man  who  carries  falsehood,  not  only  in 
his  heart,  but  on  his  head  ? " 


752-594.] 


SOLON . 


15 


SOLON. 


[594 


Very  little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  Athens.  Ceerops, 
a native  of  Sais  in  Egypt,  is  said  to  have  founded  the  city, 
required  the  people  to  marry,  and  taught  them  religion.  The 
acropolis,  or  fortress  of  Athens,  doubtless  in  his  memory,  was 
called  for  a long  time  Cecropia.  The  original  division  of  Attica 
into  twelve  little  kingdoms  is  also  ascribed  to  him.  But  no  one 
knows  when  this  took  place. 

The  last  king  who  reigned  at  Athens  was  Codrus,  who  did  a 
very  noble  thing  at  the  time  of  the  Dorian  invasion  of  Attica. 
The  oracle  foretold  that  the  Dorians  would  conquer  if  they 
spared  the  life  of  the  king  of  Athens.  To  save  his  country 
Codrus  resolved  to  sacrifice  himself  ; he  entered  the  camp  of  the 
Dorians  in  disguise,  quarrelled  with  the  soldiers,  and  was  killed. 
The  invaders,  learning  whom  they  had  slain,  took  fright  and 
left  the  country.  The  Athenians,  grateful  for  what  he  had 
done,  abolished  the  title  of  king,  created  the  new  office  of 
archon , or  ruler,  and  gave  it  to  Medon,  the  son  of  Codrus, 
who,  as  well  as  eleven  of  his  descendants  held  it  for  life  in 
succession.  The  thirteenth  descendant  of  Medon  held  r 

752 

it  for  ten  years  ; about  forty  years  later,  it  was  opened 
to  all  nobles ; and  still  later  the  duration  of  the  office  was 
reduced  from  ten  years  to  one  year,  while  the  number  of  the 
arehons  was  raised  from  one  to  nine.  Eryxias  was  the  last 
archon  who  held  office  for  ten  years,  and  Creon  the  first  of  the 
nine  arehons  who  ruled  only  one  year.  One  of  these  nine 
presided  over  the  rest,  and  was  called  the  archon,  and  the  year 
in  which  he  reigned  was  named  after  him. 

In  course  of  time,  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Athens  became  a 
republic.  The  president,  or  first  of  the  arehons,  was  called 


16 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


the  archon ; the  second  was  called  basileus , or  king,  and  acted 
as  high  priest ; the  third  was  called  polemarch , and  was  com- 
mander-in-chief ; the  other  six  archons  were  thesmotetce , or 
legislators. 

In  course  of  time,  the  affairs  of  the  republic  became  much 
disturbed  by  the  oppressions  of  the  ruling  class,  called  enpa- 
trids , or  those  of  noble  descent,  to  the  injury  of  the  demiurgi , 
or  artisans,  and  of  the  geomori , or  husbandmen. 

The  great  lawgiver  Draco  drew  up  a code  of  written  laws 
designed  to  restore  order ; but  the  great  severity  of  his  laws 
made  matters  worse,  for  they  punished  all  crimes  alike  with 
death ; the  petty  thief  and  the  murderer  forfeited  their  lives. 
A revolution  took  place  twelve  years  after  their  enactment, 
until,  through  the  exertions  of  Epimenides,  a great  seer,  and 
Solon,  the  lawgiver,  order,  contentment,  and  harmony  were 
established. 

Solon  is  believed  to  have  been  a descendant  of  Codrus,  and 
was  born  about  b.c.  638.  Execestides,  his  father,  was  a man 
of  moderate  means,  and  the  early  manhood  of  Solon  was  spent 
in  commercial  pursuits,  necessitating  frequent  travels  through 
Greece  and  into  Asia,  and  furnishing  opportunities  for  personal 
intercourse  with  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  time.  His  fame 
for  ability  was  so  great  that  he  was  numbered  with  the  seven 
sages  of  Greece.1 

His  first  great  success  in  public  life  was  the  recovery  of  the 
island  of  Salamis,  which  had  revolted  to  Megara.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  he  took  the  town  by  stratagem,  and  the  account  generally 
believed  to  be  true,  is,  that  Solon  at  the  head  of  an  expedition 
of  five  hundred  volunteers,  set  sail  for  Salamis  with  a number 
of  fishing  boats  and  a vessel  of  thirty  oars,  and  cast  anchor  at 
a given  place.  The  Megarians,  who  watched  the  movement 
with  suspicion,  rushed  to  arms  in  much  confusion,  and  sent  out 


1 They  were : Solon,  Thales,  Pittacus,  Periander,  Cleobulus,  Chilon,  and 
Bias. 


594-560] 


SOLON. 


17 


a vessel  to  reconnoitre.  It  approached  too  near  the  Athenians 
and  was  taken.  Solon  displaced  the  crew  by  picked  Athenians, 
and  ordered  the  vessel  as  stealthily  as  possible  to  sail  for  the 
city,  while  he,  with  the  rest  of  his  men,  approached  on  land 
and  engaged  the  Megarians.  In  the  midst  of  the  conflict,  the 
troops  on  board  the  vessel  took  to  their  boats  and  surprised 
the  city. 

At  that  time  the  rich,  who  under  the  law  were  empowered  to 
seize  the  property  and  the  person  of  delinquent  debtors,  had 
caused  great  miser}’  by  enforcing  their  right,  and  reducing 
many  free-born  citizens  to  domestic  slavery,  and  selling  others 
to  barbarian  masters.  The  poor  threatened  to  rise  in  insur- 
rection, and  the  rich,  in  the  critical  state  of  the  country, 
thinking  that  Solon,  as  one  of  their  class,  would  help  them, 
made  him  archon  with  unlimited  power.  Instead  of  taking 
sides,  or  acting  from  selfish  motives,  the  measures  he  adopted 
were  so  just,  wise,  and  successful,  that  his  fellow-citizens 
requested  him  to  frame  a new  constitution  and  a new  code  of 
laws. 

Having  concluded  this  great  work,  he  left  Athens  and  spent 
ten  years  in  travel  to  Egypt,  Cyprus,  and  Asia  Minor.  On 
his  return  he  found  to  his  sorrow  that  his  cousin,  Pisistratus, 
an  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  man,  sought  to  set  aside  the 
constitution,  and  make  himself  despot  of  Athens.  Solon  tried 
in  vain  to  prevent  that  calamity,  and  did  not  long  sur-  r- 
vive  it.  He  died  at  the  ripe  old  age  of  eighty,  and  his 
ashes  were  scattered,  at  his  request,  round  the  island  of 
Salamis. 

Before  naming  some  of  the  laws  of  Solon,  the  story  of 
Croesus  seems  to  be  in  place.  That  monarch  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  and  wealthy  of  Asia  Minor,  and  resided  at 
Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia.  Having  invited  Solon  to  visit 
him,  he  received  him  in  all  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  his 
glittering  court,  and  commanded  that  all  the  treasures  of  the 
palace  should  be  shown  to  him.  Beturned  from  their  survey, 


18 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


Croesus  asked  Solon  if  he  had  ever  known  a more  happy  man 
than  him,  expecting  him  to  say  no.  To  his  surprise,  Solon  said 
yes,  and  named  Tellus  of  Athens,  a man  of  means,  blessed 
with  excellent  sons,  who  had  died  gloriously  in  the  defence  of 
his  country.  The  king  then  asked  him,  if  he  could  name 
beside  Tellus  another  man  who  excelled  him  in  happiness. 
Solon  mentioned  Cleobis  and  Biton,  two  brothers  remarkable 
not  only  for  the  love  they  bore  to  each  other,  but  to  their 
mother,  who  was  a priestess  of  Juno.  One  day,  when  public 
duty  called  her  to  the  temple,  and  the  oxen  of  her  car  had  not 
come  in  time,  her  sons  took  the  oxen's  place  and  drew  the  car 
over  a distance  of  about  five  miles.  Their  praise  was  on  every 
lip,  and  the  happy  mother  prayed  the  goddess  to  reward  them 
with  the  greatest  blessing.  After  the  sacrifice  the  brothers 
went  to  sleep,  and  never  woke  again.  Thus  the  goddess 
accorded  them  a happy  and  glorious  death,  which  is  the 
greatest  blessing  mortals  may  enjoy.  Then  Croesus  asked,  not 
without  displeasure,  “ And  so  you  do  not  think  me  happy?" 
when  Solon  quietly  discoursed  to  him  about  the  inconstancy  of 
fortune,  and  told  him  that,  though  he  were  a great  and  wealthy 
king,  he  could  not  call  him  happy  until  he  knew  how  he  had 
ended  his  life. 

Croesus  in  consequence  had  but  a contemptible  opinion  of 
Solon  until  after  his  defeat  by  Cyrus,  the  Persian,  who  took 
his  city,  made  him  prisoner,  and  condemned  him  to  be  burnt 
to  death.  On  the  pyre  he  recalled  the  words  of  Solon,  and  in 
a loud  voice  cried,  uO  Solon,  Solon,  Solon  !”  Cyrus,  who  was 
present,  desired  to  know  the  meaning  of  his  calling,  and  when 
Croesus  had  explained  the  matter,  he  was  touched  by  so  striking 
a confirmation  of  the  opinion  of  Solon,  ordered  Croesus  to  be 
set  free,  and  made  him  his  friend. 

Thus  Solon  was  the  means  of  having  saved  the  life  of  one 
king,  and  the  honor  of  another,  by  a wise  word  uttered  in 
season. 

As  to  the  laws  of  Solon,  he  began  with  setting  aside  those 


594-560.] 


SOLON . 


19 


of  Draco,  except  those  relating  to  murder.  He  made  a new 
division  of  the  population  into  four  classes  according  to  their 
property,  the  first  called  Pentacosiomedimni ,x  or  persons  with 
an  annual  income  of  five  hundred  medimni  of  corn,  and 
upwards ; the  second,  with  an  income  of  three  hundred,  called 
knights  from  their  ability  to  furnish  a warhorse  ; the  third,  with 
an  income  of  from  two  to  three  hundred,  called  yokemen  from 
their  ability  to  keep  a yoke  of  oxen  ; and  the  fourth,  called 
thetes , or  hired  men,  with  an  income  of  less  than  two  hundred. 
The  first  three  classes  had  to  pa}T  an  income  tax  and  were 
eligible  to  public  offices  ; the  fourth  class  was  not  taxed,  but 
privileged  to  cast  their  votes  in  the  public  assembN.  The 
change  was  very  great,  for  the  government  passed  from  the 
hands  of  a few  into  those  of  the  many.  A form  of  government 
in  which  a fetv  are  rulers  is  called  an  oligarchy , one  in  which 
the  rule  devolves  upon  persons  assessed  for  their  property  is 
called  a timocracy . 

Nine  archons,  assisted  by  a councilor  senate  of  four  hundred 
members,  elected  annually  for  a term  of  one  year,  formed  the 
supreme  government ; there  was  a popular  assembly,  which 
had  the  power  of  passing  or  rejecting  the  laws  introduced  by 
the  senate,  of  deciding  questions  of  peace  or  war,  of  office^  and 
of  citizenship. 

The  highest  criminal  court  was  the  council  of  the  Areopagus, 
which  was  called  “ the  eye  of  the  law,”  and  held  its  sessions  at 
night ; the  judges  used  black  and  white  pebbles,  the  black  to 
condemn,  the  white  to  acquit  the  accused ; if  the  number  of 
white  stones  equalled  that  of  the  black,  the  case  was  held  to 
have  been  decided  by  the  gods  in  favor  of  the  accused. 

The  laws  of  Solon  were  very  favorable  to  the  growth  of  com- 
merce and  manufacture,  and  specially  directed  to  education. 

The  gymnasia  were  excellent  institutions  where  youth  was 


1 The  word  signifies  500  medimni , a medimnus  being  a measure  contain- 
ing 1|  bushels. 


20 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


taught  whatever  tends  to  invigorate  the  body,  and  equip  the 
mind  with  useful  and  noble  attainments.  Music,  poetry,  art, 
and  science,  philosophy  and  elocution  all  entered  into  the  edu- 
cation of  the  Athenian  youth. 

The  laws  of  Solon  aimed  at  the  useful  occupation  of  every 
citizen,  and  punished  idleness. 

A thief  had  to  restore  double  the  amount  he  had  taken  ; 
speaking  evil  of  the  dead,  or  the  living,  was  a punishable 
offence  ; a person  who,  in  a time  of  political  disturbance,  re- 
fused to  take  side  with  either  party  was  made  infamous. 

The  laws  of  Solon,  though  very  numerous,  have  only  come 
down  to  us  in  small  fragments.  They  were  written  on  wooden 
rollers  and  triangular  tablets,  and  kept  first  in  the  Acropolis, 
but  later  in  the  Prytaneum,  or  town-hall. 

Solon  also  revised  the  calendar,  and  was  the  first  who  intro- 
duced among  the  Greeks  months  of  twenty-nine  and  thirty  days 
alternately. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  Solon  used  the  familiar  phrase 
that,  u in  all  great  measures  it  is  difficult  to  please  everybody,” 
when,  in  order  to  test  the  goodness  of  his  laws,  he  left  his 
native  country. 

REFERENCES. 

Plutarch’s  “ Solon”;  Grote,  “History  of  Greece,”  vol.  I.  pp.  576- 
613;  Thirlwall,  “History  of  Greece,”  vol.  II.  pp.  27-56;  Smith, 
“History  of  Greece,”  pp.  94-lUl;  Smith,  “Dictionary,”  etc.,  under 
“ Solon.” 


500-492.] 


MIL  TIADES. 


21 


MILTIADES. 


After  the  conquest  of  Lydia,  Cyrus  undertook  the  reduction 
of  the  Greek  colonies  established  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 
These  colonies  were  settled  by  three  distinct  nationalities  or 
races,  called  the  iEolians,  who  occupied  the  northern  part  of 
the  coast ; the  Ionian s,  who  had  dwelt  in  the  central  part ; and 
the  Dorians,  who  had  chosen  the  southern  part.  These  Asiatic 
Greeks  chafed  under  the  Persian  yoke,  and  about  fifty  years 
later,  rose  against  Darius  Hystaspes,  who  then  was  the  r500 
Great  King,  for  so  the  Persian  monarch  was  described. 

He  marched  against  the  insurgents  and  speedily  reduced  them. 
Learning  that  the  Athenians  had  aided  the  Asiatic  Greeks 
with  an  armament,  Darius  was  very  angry,  and  shooting  an 
arrow  as  high  as  he  could,  exclaimed,  “ Grant  me,  Zeus,  to 
avenge  myself  on  the  Athenians ! ” That  was  his  way  of 
swearing  revenge.  He  also  bade  one  of  his  servants  remind 
him  of  his  oath  by  exclaiming  thrice  a day  at  his  dinner, 
“ Master,  remember  the  Athenians  ! ” 

He  did  not  forget  them.  He  collected  a large  army  and  a 
powerful  fleet,  commanded  by  Mardonius,  by  which  he  r4^2 
hoped  to  conquer  Greece.  The  armament  was  set  in 
motion  ; the  army  crossed  the  Hellespont  and  subdued  parts  of 
Thrace  ; the  fleet  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Europe  and  doubled 
mount  Athos ; off  the  promontory  of  that  mountain  it  was 
overtaken  by  a fearful  storm  in  which  300  ships  were  destined, 
and  not  less  than  20,000  men  either  drowned  or  cast  ashore. 
The  army  was  equally  unfortunate.  The  Thracians  in  a night 
attack  surprised  the  Persians,  almost  annihilated  them,  and 
even  wounded  Mardonius,  who  had  to  return  home  in  disgrace 
and  mortification  at  not  having  even  seen  the  enemy  against 


22 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


490] 


whom  he  had  been  sent.  Darius  never  employed  him  again, 
but  his  purpose  of  punishing  the  Greeks  remained  unbroken, 
and  he  commanded  the  formation  of  a second  and  more  formi- 
dable armament. 

Pending  the  preparations,  he  sent  heralds  to  most  of  the 
Grecian  cities  to  demand  from  them  earth  and  water  in  token 
of  their  submission.  Many  of  the  continental  cities  and  of 
the  islands  complied  with  his  request,  and  handed  to  his  her- 
alds a cup  of  water,  in  token  that  their  rivers  and  seas  ac- 
knowledged his  dominion,  and  another  filled  with  earth,  in 
token  that  their  land  submitted  to  his  rule.  But  at  Sparta  and 
Athens  the  heralds  met  with  different  treatment.  In  the  latter 
place  the  citizens  threw  them  into  a deep  pit,  which  had  been 
sometimes  used  for  the  punishment  of  criminals ; and  in  Sparta 
the  herald  was  cast  into  a well,  and  bidden  to  help  himself. 

When  Darius  heard  what  had  happened,  he  sent  for  Datis 
and  Artaphernes,  his  generals,  saying,  u Set  out  for 
Greece,  make  slaves  of  the  men  of  Athens,  and  pro- 
duce them  here.”  Soon  an  armament  of  600  triremes,  with 
numerous  transports  for  men  and  horses,  was  on  the  way. 
Some  of  the  vessels  were  loaded  with  chains  intended  for  the 
Greeks,  and  in  one  of  them  was  placed  a huge  block  of  marble 
destined  to  be  set  up  as  a trophy  upon  the  ruins  of  Athens. 
Warned  by  the  experience  of  Mardonius,  the  Persian  com- 
mander sailed  across  the  Aegean  from  Samos  to  Euboea,  took 
Eretria,  burnt  its  temples,  and  dragged  the  citizens  into  slavery. 

Then  they  crossed  over  to  Attica,  and  landed  in  the  bay  of 
Marathon,  on  the  eastern  coast,  and  distant  from  Athens  by 
one  road  twenty  miles,  by  another  twenty-six,  equal  to  about 
six  hours  and  a half  of  computed  march.  The  danger  was 
therefore  at  the  very  doors  of  Athens. 

The  consternation  in  that  city  was  excessive.  Pheidippides, 
a runner,  was  sent  to  Sparta  to  solicit  aid.  He  ran  the  dis- 
tance of  150  miles  in  48  hours,  but  unfortunately  arrived  on 
the  ninth  day  of  the  moon,  when  according  to  ancient  custom 


490] 


MILTIADES. 


it  was  not  lawful  for  the  Spartans  to  inarch,  but  they  promised 
to  come  immediately  after  the  full  moon.  The  Athenians  were 
consequently  left  without  aid  from  Sparta,  but  the  noble  and 
valiant  Platseans  sent  unasked  the  whole  of  their  martial 
strength,  consisting  of  1,000  soldiers.  The  Athenians  them- 
selves mustered  9,000  strong,  and  the  whole  of  their  fight- 
ing force  numbered  only  10,000,  with  which  they  marched 
against  the  Persians,  whose  strength  cannot  have  been  less 
than  110,000  men. 

Marathon,  on  the  margin  of  a bay  E.N.E.  from  Athens,  is 
naturally  separated  from  that  city  by  the  lofty  ridge  of  Mount 
Pentelicus.  The  bay  is  deep,  and  has  a shore  favorable  for 
landing ; the  plain  is  six  miles  long,  and  at  no  point  more  than 
a mile  and  a half  wide.  At  either  end  of  the  bay  is  a marsh, 
of  which  the  northern  is  at  all  seasons  impassable  at  certain 
points,  while  the  southern  is  generally  dry  at  the  end  of 
summer.  On  the  hard,  sandy  plain,  without  a single  tree 
standing  on  it,  between  these  marshes,  with  the  sea  to  the 
eastward,  and  an  amphitheatre  of  rocky  hills  to  the  westward, 
was  fought  the  battle  of  Marathon. 

The  Athenians  were  posted  on  the  high  ground  above  this 
level  stretch.  The  Persians,  who  had  drawn  up  their  ships  to 
the  beach,  formed  in  the  plain.  In  their  centre,  with  them 
the  place  of  honor,  stood  native  Persians,  and  Sacse,  the  flower 
of  their  army.  With  the  Greeks,  the  post  of  honor  was  the 
right  wing,  commanded  by  Callimachus ; the  soldiers  were 
ranged  in  the  order  of  their  tribes,  from  right  to  left ; and  the 
Plataeans  stood  at  the  extreme  left.  As  the  Persians  greatly 
outnumbered  the  Greeks,  and  displayed  an  extended  front, 
Miltiades  had  to  form  his  line  accordingly,  to  prevent  the 
enemy  taking  him  in  the  flank.  His  centre,  therefore,  was 
thinner  and  weaker  than  his  wings. 

Fear,  amounting  almost  to  terror,  befell  the  Athenians  when 
they  beheld  the  countless  hosts  of  the  invaders  ; and  they  were 
for  leaving  the  field  and  returning  home.  But  Miltiades  calmed 


24 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


their  fear,  and  inspired  them  with  courage.  “ Soldiers,”  he 
cried,  “if  we  do  not  begin  the  conflict  as  brave  men,  but  leave 
the  field  as  cowards  to  the  enemy,  our  flight  will  make  him 
bold ; he  will  pursue,  attack,  and  beat  us  ; our  city  will  fall  a 
prey  to  the  wild  Asiatics ; and  we  ourselves  will  be  carried  into 
slavery.  Away  with  hesitation,  Greeks ; let  us  be  united, 
united  for  the  conflict ! this  alone  will  save  us,  and  save  the 
liberty  of  Greece  ! ” 

This  speech  told;  and  down  rushed  the  soldiers  under  the 
animating  paean  or  war-cry  to  the  charge,  which  shook  the 
Persians,  and  drove  them  back  to  some  distance  in  the  wings ; 
but  in  the  centre,  where  the  Athenians  were  weakest,  the 
Persians  made  sad  havoc,  and  chased  them.  At  that  moment, 
Miltiades  ordered  his  victorious  wings  to  stay  the  pursuit  of  the 
flying  enemy,  and  sweep  round  to  the  protection  and  reforming 
of  his  centre.  The  order  was  well  executed ; the  pursuit  of 
the  Persians  became  general,  who,  panic-stricken,  made  for 
their  ships.  Not  a few  of  their  number  perished  in  the  marsh  ; 
and  the  Athenians  succeeded  in  destroying  by  fire  seven  of 
their  ships  before  they  could  gain  the  sea.  Once  safe  at  sea, 
the  Persians  recovered  from  their  fright ; and  their  fleet  was 
ordered  to  sail  for  Athens,  which  they  hoped  to  surprise, 
directed  by  the  signal  of  a burnished  shield,  lifted  by  traitor 
hands  on  a lofty  point  of  the  Attic  highlands,  which  caught  and 
reflected  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Fortunately  the  signal  was  seen 
not  only  by  the  Persians,  but  also  by  Miltiades,  who,  divining 
its  purport,  ordered  his  victorious  army  to  march  without  a 
moment’s  delay,  from  the  field  of  their  glory,  towards  Athens, 
and  succeeded  in  gaining  the  port  just  before  the  fleet  of  Datis 
appeared  off  Phalerum. 

Afraid  to  disembark  a second  time  on  Attic  soil  before  the 
self-same  warriors  who  had  so  recently  chased  his  troops  from 
the  plain  of  Marathon,  the  Persian  commander,  with  great 
chagrin,  sailed  homewards  ; and  Athens,  for  the  time  at  least, 
escaped  the  terrors  of  a Persian  occupation. 


490.] 


MILT  I ABES. 


25 


Aristides  had  been  left  in  charge  of  the  field  of  Marathon, 
the  fallen  heroes,  and  the  spoil,  which  included  the  camp  of  the 
Persians,  with  all  its  treasures,  as  well  as  the  chains  and  the 
block  of  marble.  The  Persian  dead  numbered  6,400,  the 
Athenians  192.  But  besides  these,  another  Athenian  died  a 
glorious  death,  who,  desirous  of  carrying  the  good  tidings  to 
Athens,  ran  from  the  battle-field  in  eager  haste,  arrived  out  of 
breath,  crying,  “ Athens,  rejoice  ; we  have  won,”  and  fell  down 
dead. 

A tumulus  was  erected  on  the  spot  in  honor  of  the  192  ; a 
second  tumulus  for  the  slain  Platseans  ; a third  for  the  slaves. 
Ten  pillars,  one  for  each  tribe,  inscribed  with  the  names  of  the 
fallen,  were  also  set  up ; and  a separate  funeral  monument  was 
erected  for  Miltiades. 

The  natives  of  Marathon  paid  divine  honors  to  those  heroes. 
Pausanias,  who  visited  the  battle-field  600  years  afterwards, 
not  only  saw  the  tumulus,  but  read  the  names  of  the  buried 
heroes  on  the  monumental  pillars. 

After  the  full  moon,  but  also  after  the  battle,  appeared  2,000 
Spartans,  who,  by  forced  marches,  had  travelled  in  three  days 
from  Sparta  to  the  Attic  frontier.  The  battle  had  been  fought ; 
and  they  contented  themselves  with  a visit  to  the  battle-field, 
where  they  saw  the  dead,  and  applauded  the  Athenian  victors. 
Then  they  returned  home. 

The  battle  of  Marathon,  though  not  a decisive  defeat,  was 
the  first  which  Persia  received  from  the  Greeks  in  the  field,  and 
a proclamation  to  Greece  that  the  advance  of  the  invaders 
might  not  only  be  checked  but,  by  united  action,  effectually 
repelled. 

The  Athenians  had  the  glory  of  being  the  first  Greeks  who, 
by  their  valor,  discomfited  an  army  of  the  dreaded  Persians, 
many  times  as  strong  as  their  own,  and  drove  them  away 
covered  with  disgrace. 

As  for  Miltiades,  it  had  been  well  for  him  to  have  died  at 
Marathon.  His  success,  and  the  unmeasured  admiration  of  the 


26 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


Athenians,  turned  his  head.  An  unfortunate  expedition  against 
Paros,  an  island  belonging  to  the  group  of  the  Cyclades, 
brought  him  into  trouble  and  disgrace.  A wound  he 
had  received  took  a fatal  turn  ; and  for  his  failure  he  wTas 
fined  in  a sum  of  fifty  talents,  which,  after  his  death,  was  paid 
by  Cimon,  his  son.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  he  died  in  prison, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  such  was  the  case. 

REFERENCES. 

Grote,  “History  of  Greece,”  vol.  IT.  pp.  178-214;  Smith,  “History 
of  Greece,”  pp.  171-184;  Thirlwall,  “ History  of  Greece,”  vol.  II.  and 
Appendix  2.  See  also  Smith’s  “ Dictionary,” etc.,  under  “ Miltiades,” 
and  “Marathon”;  Creasy,  “Fifteen  Decisive  Battles.” 

NOTE. 

Marathon . The  actual  number  of  Persians  on  board  the  fleet  is 
estimated  at  200,000  men ; of  those  engaged  at  110,000  men.  The 
Greek  force,  including  attendants  and  servants , cannot  have  mustered 
more  than  20,000  men.  The  armies  stood  therefore  as  5 to  1.  The 
Persian  horse  were  not  engaged,  and  the  greatest  loss  of  the  Persians 
is  believed  to  have  taken  place  not  in  the  battle,  but  in  the  great 
marsh  in  front  of  which  a large  portion  of  their  fleet  was  drawn  up. 
The  famous  picture  of  the  battle  in  the  Painted  Portico  represented 
the  combatants  as  fighting  on  equal  terms  in  the  main  engagement, 
and  the  Persians  as  suffering  great  loss  in  the  distant  marsh. 


485-480.]  LEONIDAS  AND  THEMISTO CLES. 


27 


LEONIDAS  AND  THEMISTOCLES. 


[485 


The  news  of  the  event  of  the  battle  of  Marathon  increased 
the  anger  of  Darius  and  spurred  him  to  yet  greater  efforts 
for  the  reduction  of  Athens ; his  preparations  were 
made  on  a colossal  scale  for  four  years,  but  he  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Xerxes,  his  son,  in  the  throne,  and  in  a 
renewed  attempt  for  the  conquest  of  Greece. 

Proud,  vain,  and  of  only  moderate  ability,  a despot  wont  to 
be  served  by  slaves,  he  believed  that  to  will  was  to  do  a thing, 
and  in  order  to  insure  success,  spent  four  other  years  in  prepa- 
rations ; stores  and  magazines  were  established  in  the  seaports 
of  Thrace  ; a canal,  large  enough  to  allow  two  triremes  to  sail 
abreast,  was  cut  through  the  isthmus  which  connects  the  penin- 
sula of  mount  Atlios  with  the  main  land  ; huge  cables  were  pro- 
cured for  a bridge  of  boats  across  the  Hellespont ; troops  from 
every  part  of  the  Persian  empire,  representing  not  less  than 
forty-six  different  nationalities,  were  summoned  to  assemble  at 
Critalla  in  Cappadocia ; and  an  enormous  fleet,  larger  than 
any  ever  collected  before,  was  ordered  to  the  Hellespont. 

In  the  spring  Xerxes,  who  had  spent  the  winter  at  r480 
Sardis,  set  out  with  his  army,  which  was  divided  into 
two  bodies,  the  king  and  his  Persian  guards  in  the  midst. 

First  came  the  baggage,  and  one-half  of  the  army ; then  a 
thousand  Persian  horse,  followed  by  a thousand  Persian  spear- 
men ; next  came  ten  sacred  horses  superbty  caparisoned,  the 
sacred  car  of  Jove  drawn  by  eight  white  horses,  and  then  Xerxes 
in  his  royal  chariot.  Immediately  after  him  came  a thousand 
spearmen  and  a thousand  horse  followed  by  ten  thousand  Per- 
sian foot,  called  the  u Immortals,”  and  ten  thousand  horse. 


28 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


The  second  half  of  the  army  concluded  the  host,  which  pro- 
ceeded in  the  order  given  to  Abydos. 

The  first  disaster  encountered  by  Xerxes  was  the  destruction 
of  the  bridge  in  a fierce  storm,  for  which  in  his  anger  he  pun- 
ished the  engineers  with  death,  and  the  sea  with  a hundred 
lashes,  and  fetters  which  he  cast  into  it. 

He  ordered  two  new  bridges  to  be  made,  the  one  for  the 
army,  and  the  other  for  the  baggage  and  beasts  of  burden. 
Seated  on  a marble  throne  he  looked  with  pride  on  the  multi- 
tudes of  warriors  which  covered  the  land,  and  the  large  fleet 
which  filled  the  waters.  After  certain  religious  rites  the  im- 
mense host  began  the  passage  of  the  Hellespont,  which  con- 
sumed seven  days  and  seven  nights. 

The  army  was  ordered  to  halt  on  the  plain  of  Doriscus,  in 
Thrace,  to  be  numbered.  A myriad,  that  is  10,000  men,  was 
massed  together  as  closely  as  possible,  and  the  place  it  occu- 
pied marked  and  enclosed.  The  first  myriad  then  marched  out, 
and  another  one  filed  in,  until  170  myriads  had  passed  through 
the  enclosure.  The  cavalry  mustered  80,000  men  ; the  service 
of  the  chariots  and  camels  required  20,000  more. 

The  fleet  consisted  of  1,207  triremes,  each  manned  by  200 
rowers,  and  30  warriors  ; and  3,000  smaller  vessels,  each  with  a 
crew  of  eight.  At  the  review  the  total  of  the  army  and  navy 
was  2,317,610  men,  which  by  the  addition  of  new  forces  was 
brought  up  at  Thermopylae  to  2,641,610  combatants.  Adding 
not  less  than  the  same  number  of  slaves,  attendants,  and  the 
crews  of  transports,  the  grand  total  of  the  armament  must  have 
exceeded  5,000,000  of  men. 

The  army  and  the  fleet  effected  a junction  in  the  Thermaic 
bay,  where  Xerxes  received  the  heralds  who  brought  him  earth 
and  water  from  the  greater  part  of  Greece,  and  learned  that 
Sparta  and  Athens,  as  well  as  the  small  towns  of  Platsea  and 
Thespise  in  Boeotia  refused  the  tokens. 

born  The  soul  of  the  resistance  at  Athens  was  Themistocles, 
514  the  son  of  Neocles,  a prominent  citizen.  Even  as  a child 


514-480.]  LEONIDAS  AND  THE  Ml  S TO  CLE  S. 


29 


his  uncommon  qualities  of  mind  were  noted,  and  his  teacher 
said  to  him,  “My  son,  you  will  not  be  anything  little,  but 
something  great,  either  good  or  bad.”  As  a young  man  he 
forsook  his  acquaintance,  lost  in  thought.  When  asked  to  ex- 
plain his  conduct,  he  replied,  44  The  trophy  of  Miltiades  keeps 
me  from  sleeping  ” ; for  lie  believed  that  Marathon  was  the  be- 
ginning of  a fierce  war,  and  strove  to  prepare  Athens  for  it  by 
the  building  of  a fleet  of  200  triremes,  and  an  alliance  with 
Sparta. 

The  first  resistance  offered  the  Persians  was  at  the  pass  of 
Thermopylae,  situated  between  the  steep  and  lofty  mountain  of 
(Eta,  and  an  impassable  morass  on  the  edge  of  the  Malian  gulf. 
It  was  held  by  Leonidas  of  Sparta  with  only  300  of  his  country- 
men and  about  7,000  allied  troops,  who  had  strengthened  his 
position  by  rebuilding  the  old  Phocian  wall  across  the  northern 
entrance. 

The  idea  of  such  a handful  of  men  undertaking  to  arrest  his 
millions  excited  the  ridicule  of  Xerxes.  A scout  told  him  that 
he  had  seen  the  Lacedaemonians  outside  the  wall,  some  engaged 
in  sport,  and  others  combing  their  hair.  The  king  sent  heralds 
requiring  them  to  deliver  their  arms,  to  whom  Leonidas  replied, 
44  Tell  Xerxes  to  come  and  take  them  ! ” The  Greeks  were  told 
that  the  Persian  host  was  so  prodigious,  that  their  arrows  dark- 
ened the  sun.  u So  much  the  better,”  coolly  exclaimed  a Spar- 
tan, 4 4 we  shall  then  fight  in  the  shade.” 

Xerxes  hesitated  for  several  days,  during  which  he  hoped 
that  the  Lacedaemonians  would  come  to  their  senses,  and  aban- 
don the  pass.  Then  he  ordered  the  Medes  to  take  it,  and  bring 
its  defenders  before  him.  The  Greeks  stood  in  serried  mass, 
holding  in  their  left  hands  their  brazen  shields,  from  which  the 
arrows  of  the  Persians  glanced  harmlessly  off,  and  presenting 
in  their  right  an  impenetrable  forest  of  long  spears.  Band 
after  band  tried  in  vain  to  break  it ; they  only  met  death, 
and  the  new  comers  w^ere  hurled  back  over  the  bodies  of 
their  comrades.  The  myriad  of  44  the  Immortals  ” were  sent 


30 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


next,  and  fared  worse.  The  Persians  refused  to  enter  the 
fatal  pass. 

Enraged  at  the  inglorious  repulse,  Xerxes  leaped  thrice  from 
the  throne,  from  which  he  witnessed  the  struggle,  and  com- 
manded his  reluctant  warriors  to  be  lashed  into  the  pass,  where 
certain  death  awaited  them. 

The  valor  of  Leonidas  and  his  Spartans  might  check  the 
advance  of  the  Persians,  but  it  could  not  avert  the  con- 
sequences of  the  treason  of  Ephialtes,  a Malian,  who  betrayed 
to  Xerxes  the  secret  of  a foot-path  over  the  mountains,  by 
which  his  soldiers  found  their  way  to  the  rear  of  Leonidas. 

Apprised  of  the  treason,  he  bade  all  who  were  not  Spartans 
return  to  their  homes.  Arrayed  in  his  royal  robe  he  sacrificed 
to  his  native  gods,  and  with  his  300  Spartans  sate  down  to  a 
parting  meal.  Then  they  rushed  forth,  and  charging  the  enemy 
with  desperate  valor,  dealt  death  around  them.  The  Per- 
sians, though  constantly  whipped  to  fight,  dreaded  to  face  this 
handful  of  heroes,  who  defied  them  until  their  spears  were 
broken.  When  they  had  only  their  swords  left,  were  thinned 
in  numbers,  exhausted  by  fatigue  and  wounds,  and  Leonidas 
had  been  slain,  the  noble  remnant  retired  within  the 
pass,  and,  covered  with  the  missiles  of  the  Persians, 
were  killed  to  a man. 

The  hillock  on  which  they  made  their  last  stand  became 
afterwards  the  site  of  a marble  lion,  erected  in  honor  of 
Leonidas,  and  of  two  monumental  pillars,  the  one  bearing  the 
proud  inscription  that  u 4,000  Peloponnesians  had  here  fought 
with  3,000,000  of  foes”  ; and  the  other,  the  simple  and  touching 
legend,  uGo,  wand’rer,  and  at  Sparta  tell,  that  here,  obedient 
to  her  laws,  we  fell.” 

Nothing  could  now  stay  the  advance  of  the  Persians,  who 
ravaged  the  country,  set  on  fire  the  towns  and  villages  through 
which  they  passed,  and  drove  before  them  the  unhappy 
inhabitants,  who  fled  in  terror  to  the  Peloponnesus.  That 
narrow  isthmus  the  Spartans,  indifferent  about  the  fate  of 


480] 


480.] 


LEONIDAS  AND  THEMISTOCLES. 


31 


Athens,  were  fortifying  by  means  of  a strong,  transverse 
wall. 

Threatened  with  inevitable  destruction,  the  Athenians  in  the 
extremity  of  their  danger  consulted  the  oracle  at  Delphi  for 
advice,  and  received  the  dark  reply  that  “ the  divine  Salamis 
would  make  women  childless,”  and  that  “ they  must  trust  in 
walls  of  wood.” 

In  the  midst  of  universal  despair,  Themistocles  arose  and 
saved  the  people.  The  walls  of  wood,  he  said,  were  the  ships 
which  the  gods  had  destined  to  be  their  salvation  ; they  must 
leave  the  city,  and  go  on  board  those  ships.  Many  of  the 
Athenians  took  his  advice,  hopefully  abandoned  their  homes, 
and  removed  their  families  to  Trcezen,  iEgina,  and  Salamis. 
Those  able  for  war  joined  Themistocles,  and  the  whole  Grecian 
fleet,  commanded  by  Eurybiades,  the  Spartan,  and  numbering 
365  ships,  assembled  at  Salamis.  Soon  after  their  departure 
Xerxes  arrived,  ravaged  the  country,  and  after  pillaging 
the  city,  set  it  on  fire.  The  hapless  Athenians  saw  from 
Salamis  the  smoke  and  the  flames  in  which  perished  their 
loved  homes  and  all,  besides  their  lives,  they  prized  most  on 
earth. 

About  the  same  time,  the  Persian  fleet  arrived  off  Phalerum, 
and  the  vast  armament  which  filled  the  waters  as  far  as  they 
could  see  also  filled  the  breasts  of  the  Greeks  with  fear.  The 
allies  of  the  Athenians  were  disheartened,  and  meditated 
abandoning  them  to  their  fate.  The  Peloponnesians  were  for 
sailing  to  the  isthmus  and  helping  to  defend  it,  arguing 
that,  after  the  fall  of  Athens,  the  loss  of  Attica  was  inevita- 
ble. In  this  terrible  crisis  Themistocles  devised  a desperate 
remedy. 

He  sent  Sicinnus,  a trusted  slave,  on  a secret  mission  to 
Xerxes,  and  charged  him  to  say:  u Great  king,  I am  your 
friend,  and  long  to  enter  your  service.  The  Greeks  meditate 
escaping  from  this  bay  this  very  night.  Enclose  them,  and 
their  fleet  is  yours.”  Xerxes  took  the  hiut,  and  during  the 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


night  his  fleet  drew  round  the  Greeks  and  cut  off  every  outlet. 
Discovering  that  retreat  was  impossible,  the  Greeks  were  com- 
pelled to  fight  in  the  naval  engagement  which  followed,  and  is 
famed  in  history  as  the  battle  of  Salamis. 

The  Persians  were  most  unfortunate.  Unacquainted  with 
the  dangers  of  that  rock-bound  coast,  many  of  their  vessels 
had  run  upon  the  cliffs  in  the  darkness  of  night ; they  had  no 
sea-room  for  the  proper  disposition  of  their  too  numerous 
craft ; their  ships,  moreover,  were  clumsy,  and  so  difficult  to 
handle  that  when  one  of  their  number  was  pushed  back  by  the 
Greeks,  it  threw  all  those  in  the  rear  into  confusion ; the  Per- 
sians, moreover,  were  suffering  from  lack  of  concert.  In  all 
these  respects  the  Greeks  were  superior ; they  had  plenty  of 
sea-room  in  a bay  where  they  knew  every  inch  of  water ; 
they  acted  in  concert,  and  the  movements  of  their  fleet 
triremes  were  directed  by  able  commanders.  They  behaved 
splendidly,  and  soon  the  bay  was  covered  with  the  bodies 
of  the  slain  floating  amidst  the  broken  oars,  the  splintered 
masts,  and  the  demolished  hulks  of  the  Persian  armament, 
to  which  the  wounded  were  clinging  with  the  energy  of 
despair.  The  Asiatic  Greeks  deserted  to  their  brethren  ; the 
whole  Persian  armament  was  routed,  and  sought  safety  in 
flight. 

This  humiliating  spectacle,  enacted  under  the  eyes  of  Xerxes, 
who  sat  on  a lofty  throne,  erected  for  the  purpose  at  a point 
commanding  the  bay,  filled  that  monarch  with  wrath  and  vexa- 
tion. Passing  from  overweening  confidence  to  unreasonable 
suspicion  and  fear,  he  hastened  his  return  march  with  un- 
seemly speed,  and  never  rested  until  he  had  recrossed  the 
Hellespont ; not  over  the  bridge,  for  the  storms  had  swept 
it  away,  but,  as  some  say,  in  the  lowly  skiff  of  a Thracian 
fisherman. 

Themistocles  doubtless  had  saved,  in  the  victory  of  Salamis, 
his  country  from  the  yoke  of  the  Persians.  Though  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  commanders  deprived  him  of  the  honors  due  to  his 


514-449.]  LEONIDAS  AND  THEMISTOCLES. 


33 


merit,  his  name  was  praised  throughout  Greece,  and  the  Spar- 
tans, whom  he  visited,  led  him  in  triumph  into  their  city, 
crowned  him  with  an  olive  wreath,  gave  him  the  finest  chariot 
which  Sparta  could  produce,  and  an  escort  of  the  three  hundred 
knights  who  accompanied  him  as  far  as  Tegea. 

After  the  battle  of  Salamis,  Themistocles  was  unremitting  in 
his  efforts  for  raising  Athens  to  the  supremacy  of  Greece.  To 
him  belongs  the  merit  of  building  the  magnificent  fortifications 
of  the  port  of  Piraeus  and  the  restoration  of  the  walls  of 
Athens.  The  Spartans,  doubtless  from  motives  of  jealousy, 
were  bitterly  opposed  to  these  fortifications  so  necessary  to 
the  protection  and  safety  of  Athens.  Themistocles  contrived 
to  accomplish  his  purpose  by  diplomacy,  amused  the  Spartans 
with  curious  stories  until  the  walls  were  built,  and  then  told 
them  that  Athens  could  now  protect  herself. 

But  Themistocles  could  not  escape  the  jealousy  and  enmity 
of  his  fellow-citizens,  who  were  notorious  for  their  ingratitude. 
He  was  charged  with  complicity  in  the  treacherous  correspond- 
ence conducted  by  Pausanias  with  the  king  of  Persia,  r- 
and  condemned  to  temporary  banishment. 

After  spending  about  five  years  at  Argos,  the  discovery  of 
the  correspondence  of  Pausanias  at  Sparta  and  the  formal 
charge  of  treason  preferred  against  him  by  the  Lacedaemonians 
made  his  stay  at  Argos  precarious,  and  induced  him  to  effect 
his  escape  first  to  Corcyra,  then  to  Admetus,  king  of  the 
Molossians,  and  lastly  to  Artaxerxes,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Xerxes,  who  allowed  him  not  only  to  live  unmolested  in  his 
dominions,  but  was  so  captivated  b}^  his  dazzling  schemes  for 
the  subjugation  of  Greece,  that  he  made  handsome  Born 
provision  for  him  at  Magnesia,  on  the  Maeander,  died  449 
where  he  died. 

The  Magnesians  erected  a very  handsome  monument  to  him 
in  the  Agora  of  their  city,  which  remained  to  the  time  of 
Plutarch,  more  than  five  centuries  after  the  death  of  Themis- 
tocles. He  also  stated  that  one  of  his  descendants,  with  whom 


34 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


he  was  personally  acquainted,  continued  to  enjoy  certain  privi- 
leges and  honors  which  Artaxerxes  had  conferred  upon  his 
ancestors.  This  proves  how  highly  liis  services  had  been 
regarded  by  the  Persians. 

It  is  said  that  at  his  own  request,  the  remains  of  Themistocles 
were  removed  to  Attica,  and  that  the  Athenians  honored  him 
with  a tomb  in  the  Piraeus,  supposed  to  have  borne  this  inscrip- 
tion : — 

“ By  the  sea's  margin,  on  the  watery  strand, 

Thy  monument,  Themistocles,  shall  stand : 

By  this  directed  to  thy  native  shore 

The  merchant  shall  convey  his  freighted  store ; 

And  when  our  fleets  are  summoned  to  the  fight, 

Athens  shall  conquer  with  thy  tomb  in  sight." 

Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  character  of  Themistocles, 
it  is  impossible  not  to  admire  his  foresight,  contrivance,  and 
decision,  and  not  1?o  deplore  the  fact  that  honest}'  did  not 
distinguish  him.  Had  he  been  honest  and  true,  an  inglorious 
exile  and  the  stigma  of  treason  would  not  have  stained  his 
patriotism. 


REFERENCES. 

Grote,  “History  of  Greece,"  vol.  II.  pp.  272-314,  365-394;  Smith, 
“ History  of  Greece,"  pp.  185-215,  239-250 ; Smith,  “ Dictionary," 
etc.,  under  “Leonidas  " and  “ Themistocles." 


469-429.] 


PERICLES. 


35 


PERICLES. 

Enriched  beyond  all  other  cities  of  Greece  by  the  victories 
achieved  over  Persia,  Athens  attained  the  zenith  of  r 

4G9~ 429 

her  glory  during  the  long  reign  of  Pericles,  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  of  her  children.  Her  pre-eminence  in  wealth, 
military  and  naval  power,  in  education,  culture,  science,  and 
art,  was  chiefly  due  to  his  wise  and  able  administration. 

From  the  unusual  size  of  his  head  he  had  obtained  the  mag- 
nificent nickname  Kephaleger’etes , signifying  an  assemblage  of 
heads,  and  importing  that  his  brain  power  was  greater  than 
that  of  any  of  his  contemporaries.  He  also  bore  the  nick- 
name Olympius , on  account  of  his  eloquence,  which  when  he 
harangued  the  people  seemed  to  affect  them  as  if  the  deity 
were  thundering  and  lightning  on  Mount  Olympus. 

After  the  destruction  of  Athens  by  the  Persians,  Pericles 
caused  it  to  be  rebuilt  with  such  superb  magnificence  that  the 
fame  of  its  splendor  was  known  throughout  the  world.  The 
private  dwellings  of  the  Athenians  were  plain,  and  inferior  to 
our  own,  for  the  republican  simplicity  or  jealousy,  as  well  as 
the  public  life  of  the  Athenians,  combined  to  make  their  domes- 
tic architecture  plain,  but  that  of  their  public  edifices  grand 
and  magnificent.  The  beauty  and  dazzling  splendor  of  the 
temples,  theatres,  gymnasia,  and  other  public  buildings  of 
Athens,  have  never  been  eclipsed  and  rarely  equalled.  The 
ruins  of  Athens  continue  to  excite  the  admiration  of  all  be- 
holders, and  to  furnish  the  best  school  to  the  architects  and 
artists  of  the  civilized  world. 

The  Acropolis,  or  fortress,  occupied  the  most  commanding 
site  of  Athens,  and  in  it,  on  it,  and  around  it,  centered  the 


36 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 

most  famous  public  buildings  and  monuments.  The  Acropolis 
crowned  a steep  and  lofty  hill  in  the  northern  part  of  Athens. 
A noble  marble  stairway  of  grand  dimensions  connected  the 
fortress  with  the  city.  The  view  from  that  height  was,  and 
yet  is,  exceedingly  beautiful.  Beyond  the  vast  city,  with  its 
countless  temples,  altars,  and  monuments,  stretched  the  famous 
w^alls  which  united  it  with  the  three  sea-ports,  where  noble 
ships  were  coming  and  going,  and  large  fleets  were  wont  to  ride 
at  anchor ; then  arose  the  beautiful  sea  whose  dark  blue  waters 
reflect  the  deep  azure  of  the  sunny  sky,  with  the  island  of 
Salamis  in  the  foreground,  and  the  mountains  of  Peloponnesus 
in  the  background. 

Turning  round  towards  the  Acropolis,  the  superb  marble 
gateway,  known  as  the  Propykea,  and  considered  with  the 
Parthenon,  as  the  architectural  glory  of  the  age  of  Pericles, 
compelled  the  admiration  of  the  visitor.  This  gateway,  with 
its  splendid  columns  and  five  gates,  the  central  gate  larger  than 
the  rest,  and  ample  for  the  use  of  chariots  and  horsemen,  was 
flanked  by  two  wings,  the  one  a temple  consecrated  to  the  god- 
dess of  Victory,  the  other  a picture-gallery,  adorned  with 
the  paintings  of  the  most  famous  artists,  had  been  erected 
by  the  architect,  Mnesicles,  in  five  years,  and  cost  about 
$2,300,000. 

The  Propylaea  conducted  the  visitor  into  the  Acropolis, 
which  covered  an  area  of  1,000  feet  from  east  to  west,  and 
about  500  feet  from  north  to  south,  and  was  enclosed  with  a 
massive  wall  of  solid  masonry.  The  most  commanding  object 
of  the  Acropolis  was  the  colossal  bronze  figure  of  Athena 
Promachus , or  Pallas  Athena , the  former  name  describing  the 
treatment  of  the  subject,  namely  Athena  fighting,  or  repre- 
sented in  the  very  attitude  of  battle,  and  the  latter  name  des- 
ignating the  character  of  the  goddess,  as  the  protectress,  or  tute- 
lary deity,  of  Athens.  It  was  one  of  the  masterpieces  of 
Phidias,  of  colossal  proportions,  about  70  feet  high;  the  point 
of  its  spear  and  the  crest  of  its  helmet  flashed  the  rays  of  the 


469-429.] 


PERICLES. 


37 


sun,  and  was  the  most  conspicuous  landmark  of  Athens,  visi- 
ble from  Sunium,  more  than  twenty  miles  away.  This  superb 
statue  was  still  standing  a.d.  395,  and  is  said  to  have  fright- 
ened away  Alaric,  when  he  came  to  sack  the  Acropolis. 

But  the  crowning  glory  of  the  Acropolis  was  the  Parthenon , 
or  the  Temple  of  Athena,  the  Virgin,  which  stood  on  the  lofti- 
est spot  of  the  rock,  and  rose  to  the  height  of  about  70  feet.  The 
architects  of  that  wonderful  structure  were  Callicrates  and  Icti- 
nus, who  worked  under  the  general  direction  of  Phidias.  It 
was  built  entirely  of  Pentelic  marble,  and  constituted  a mag- 
nificent hall,  enclosed  within  40  columns,  replete  with  the 
most  exquisite  sculptures  and  other  works  of  art.  Of  these 
the  colossal  statue  of  Athena,  40  feet  high,  made  by  Phi- 
dias, represented  the  goddess  standing,  clothed  with  a tunic 
reaching  to  the  ankles,  with  a spear  in  her  left  hand,  and  an 
image  of  Victory  in  her  right,  a helmet  on  her  head,  and  a 
shield  resting  on  the  ground  by  her  side.  It  was  made  of 
ivory  and  gold,  the  former  material  being  used  for  the  face, 
hands,  and  feet,  and  the  latter  for  the  drapery  and  orna- 
ments. 

The  general  direction  of  the  works  of  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, etc.,  executed  under  Pericles,  was  left  with  Phidias,  who 
besides  the  artists  already  mentioned  by  name,  had  drawn  to 
Athens  the  most  famous  masters  of  the  period.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  painters  were  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius,  renowned 
for  their  wonderfully  accurate  imitation  of  nature.  In  a con- 
test for  superior  skill  the  former  painted  a bunch  of  grapes  so 
naturally  that  the  birds  flew  at  the  picture  to  eat  the  fruit,  while 
the  latter  had  brought  his  picture  covered,  as  it  seemed,  with  a 
curtain.  Zeuxis,  elated  with  his  success,  impatiently  called 
out  to  Parrhasius  to  remove  the  curtain,  and  show  what  he  had 
done.  The  latter  laughed,  and  behold!  his  picture  was  — the 
curtain  itself.  Zeuxis  then  yielded  the  palm  to  Parrhasius, 
saying,  “I  have  deceived  only  birds,  but  Parrhasius  has  de- 
ceived me.” 


38 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


Athens  contained  also  numerous  schools,  which  in  many 
respects  were  different  from  ours.  The  Athenian  youth  were 
taught  grammar,  music,  and  gymnastics.  In  their  gymnasia 
provision  was  made  for  instruction  in  playing  at  ball,  pulling  at 
a rope,  using  the  top,  throwing  five  stones,  etc.  ; these,  of 
course,  were  gymnastic  sports ; the  severer  exercises  consisted 
in  running,  throwing  the  disc,  etc.,  jumping,  leaping,  wrestling, 
boxing,  and  even  dancing  was  taught. 

These  gymnasia,  as  well  as  baths,  and  similar  institutions, 
were  frequented,  under  proper  regulations,  by  all  classes  and 
ages  of  the  people,  and  were  extremely  beneficial  in  the  proper 
training  of  the  mind  as  well  as  of  the  body.  One  of  the  most 
popular  resorts  of  Athens  was  the  Agora,  or  the  Market-place, 
where  commodities  of  every  description  were  offered  for  sale, 
where  the  judges  were  wont  to  dispense  justice,  where  the 
learned  would  carry  on  discussions,  and  where  the  people 
would  often  assemble  to  deliberate  on  laws  and  public  meas- 
ures. At  the  time  of  which  we  are  treating,  the  Agora  was  an 
exceeding^  beautiful  place  of  resort,  filled  with  buildings, 
temples,  sanctuaries,  altars,  and  monuments ; among  the  trees 
were  beautiful  statues,  and  the  famous  porticoes,  or  cloisters, 
were  decorated  with  paintings. 

All  these  tokens  of  wealth  and  culture,  which  might  easily  be 
enlarged  by  facts  connected  with  the  commerce,  centred  in  the 
ever-populous  ports  of  Athens,  were  mainly  due  to  the  wise 
and  beneficent  administration  of  Pericles.  His  power  over  the 
people  was  astonishing.  On  one  occasion  he  pronounced  the 
funeral  oration  for  those  who  had  fallen  in  battle.  Their  sur- 
viving friends,  in  many  instances  the  parents  of  the  dead,  were 
present ; and  at  the  conclusion  of  his  oration,  the  mothers, 
grateful  for  the  words  of  consolation  so  eloquent^  and  touch- 
ingly uttered,  rushed  up  to  him,  presenting  garlands  moistened 
with  their  tears  in  token  of  their  gratitude. 

Yet  gratitude  was  not  the  leading  trait  of  Athenian  char- 
acter. The  Athenians  were  proverbially  fickle,  and  wanting  in 


431-404.] 


PERICLES . 


39 


[431-404 


gratitude  to  their  greatest  benefactors.  Thus  it  fared  with 
Pericles. 

During  the  Peloponnesian  war,  waged  by  the  Athenians  with 
Sparta,  the  Spartans  had  invaded  and  wasted  Attica. 
Unfortunately  the  hardships  and  terrors  of  the  war 
were  immeasurably  aggravated  by  the  horrors  of  a most  destruc- 
tive epidemic,  called  the  plague . It  raged  with  unprecedented 
fury  in  the  populous  city  for  three  years,  and  embittered  the 
feelings  of  the  stricken  people  against  Pericles,  whom  they 
unjustly  charged  with  having  caused  the  war  and  all  their  mis- 
fortunes. Enemies  were  busy  in  stirring  up  hatred  against 
him,  and  the  people  not  only  deprived  him  of  his  position  of 
commander-in-chief,  but  fined  him  in  a large  sum  of  mono}’. 
The  triumph  of  his  enemies,  however,  was  short-lived,  for  the 
incapacity  of  his  successors  speedily  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
people ; and  he  was  restored  to  his  honors  with  as  much  power 
and  influence  as  he  had  ever  wielded  before. 

But  clouds  of  domestic  misfortunes  obscured  the  autumn  of 
his  life.  The  plague  had  smitten  not  only  many  of  his  friends, 
but  claimed  for  its  victims  his  sister  and  his  two  sons.  At  the 
funeral  of  Paralus,  his  favorite  son,  when  it  was  his  duty  to 
place  a wreath  on  his  body,  he  broke  down  with  uncontrollable 
grief  and,  for  the  first  time  in  his  life,  wept  aloud.  Soon  after 
he  was  seized  by  a slow  fever,  which  sapped  his  strength  of 
body  and  mind.  As  he  lay  seemingly  unconscious,  his  friends 
spoke  of  all  he  had  done,  and  dwelt  upon  the  nine  trophies  he 
had  erected  at  different  times  for  so  many  victories.  He  heard 
what  they  said,  and  exclaimed  to  their  amazement : “ What  you 
praise  in  my  life  belongs  partly  to  good  fortune,  and  is  at  least 
common  to  me  with  many  , other  generals.  But  that  which  I 
esteem  most  you  have  failed  to  mention  ; I mean,  that  no 
Athenian  ever  put  on  mourning  through  any  act  of  mine.” 

Thus  died  the  most  noble  and  most  gifted  son  of 
Athens,  the  virtuous,  wise,  and  patrigtic  Pericles. 

How  Pericles  spoke  may  be  learned  from  the  following 


[429 


40 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


extract  of  a speech  which  is  said  to  have  electrified  his 
hearers : — 

“ Be  not  angry  with  me,  whose  advice  }re  followed  in  going 
to  war,  because  the  enemy  have  done  such  damage  as  might  be 
expected  from  them ; still  less,  on  account  of  this  unforeseen 
distemper:  I know  that  this  makes  me  an  object  of  your 
special  present  hatred,  though  very  unjustly,  unless  you  will 
consent  to  give  me  credit  also  for  any  unexpected  good  luck 
which  may  occur.  Our  city  derives  its  peculiar  glory  from 
unshaken  bearing  up  against  misfortune  : her  power,  her  name, 
her  empire  of  Greeks  over  Greeks,  are  such  as  have  never 
before  been  seen : and  if  we  choose  to  be  great,  we  must  take 
the  consequence  of  that  temporary  envy  and  hatred  which  is 
the  necessary  price  of  permanent  renown.  Behave  now  worthy 
of  that  glory : show  that  courage  essential  to  protect  you 
against  present  disgrace,  and  to  ensure  your  honor  hereafter. 
Send  no  further  embassy  to  Sparta,  and  bear  your  misfortunes 
without  any  symptoms  of  distress.” 


REFERENCES. 


Grote,  “ History  of  Greece,”  vol.  II.  pp.  435-552 ; Smith,  “ History 
of  Greece,”  pp.  265-291;  Thirlwall,  “History  of  Greece,”  vol.  II I. 
ch.  17-20;  Plutarch’s  “Pericles”;  and  Smith,  “Dictionary,”  etc., 
under  “Pericles.” 


470-399.]  ALCIBIADES  AND  SOCRATES. 


41 


ALCIBIADES  AND  SOCRATES. 

These  two  celebrated  men  were  contemporaries,  and  lived  at 
Athens  during  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

Alcibiades  was  born  in  that  city,  about  b.c.  450  ; left  an 
orphan,  he  was  brought  up  in  the  house  of  Pericles,  to  about 
whom  he  was  related.  His  personal  beauty,  wealth,  453-450 
and  bright  intellect  made  him  a conspicuous  person  even  in  early 
youth.  As  a boy,  he  gained  notoriety  for  imperious  passion  and 
wanton  insolence.  Vain,  ambitious,  and  spoiled  by  flatterers, 
his  wild  freaks  were  the  town  talk.  Wrestling  with  another 
bo}^,  he  was  on  the  point  of  being  thrown,  when,  by  way  of 
defence,  he  bit  the  hand  of  his  antagonist,  and  got  free.  The 
bitten  lad  exclaimed,  u Alcibiades,  you  bite  like  a woman!” 
“ Not  at  all,”  he  replied,  “ I bite  like  a lion.” 

On  another  occasion,  he  and  some  boys  were  playing  at  dice 
in  the  street,  and  just  when  his  turn  to  throw  had  come,  a 
loaded  wagon  was  approaching.  u Stop  a little,”  he  cried  out 
to  the  driver,  who  took  no  notice  of  his  request,  and  drove  on. 
The  other  boys  went  aside,  but  he  threw  himself  on  the  road 
before  the  horses,  and  bade  the  driver  move  on.  The  driver 
stopped  the  horses  ; Alcibiades  took  his  throw,  and  then  turned 
aside. 

Though  a good  scholar  in  learning,  he  had  the  knack  of 
getting  into  scrapes.  Playing  the  flute  was  then  a fashionable 
accomplishment  at  Athens  ; but  Alcibiades  refused  to  acquire 
it,  and  branded  the  instrument  as  mean  and  unbecoming  a 
gentleman  ; besides,  he  would  say,  playing  the  flute  distorts  the 
face,  and  prevents  the  performer  from  singing  and  speaking. 
“ Let  the  Theban  youth  therefore  pipe,  for  they  know  not  how 


42 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


to  speak  ; but  we  Athenians,  as  our  fathers  have  told  us,  have 
Minerva  for  our  patroness,  and  Apollo  for  our  protector,  one 
of  whom  threw  away  the  flute ; and  the  other  flayed  the  man 
who  played  it.” 

His  conduct  as  a young  man  was  execrable.  One  day  he  laid 
a wager,  that  he  would  in  the  public  street  box  the  ear  of  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  citizens,  not  because  he  bore  him  a 
grudge  for  anything,  but  from  sheer  and  wanton  insolence. 
And  he  committed  the  outrage  to  the  intense  indignation  of  the 
whole  city.  On  the  next  morning,  Alcibiades  called  upon  the 
gentleman,  apologized,  bared  his  shoulder,  and  bade  him  punish 
him  for  his  insolence.  He  generously  forbore  to  take  revenge, 
accepted  his  apology,  and  actually  gave  him  his  daughter  to  wife. 

Similar  was  his  conduct  in  the  house  of  Anytus,  who  had 
invited  him  to  an  entertainment,  which  he  had  not  accepted. 
On  the  day  of  the  party,  he  proposed  to  some  boon  companions, 
assembled  at  his  own  house,  to  repair  to  Anytus  to  have  some 
fun.  Stationing  himself  at  the  door  of  the  banquet-chamber, 
he  bade  his  servants  seize  half  of  the  gold  and  silver  cups 
which  graced  the  table,  and  remove  them  to  his  own  house. 
Then  he  left.  The  company  wanted  to  resent  the  affront ; but 
Anytus  good-naturedly  remarked  that  he  might  have  done  worse, 
for  he  had  left  at  least  half  -standing,  whereas  he  might  have 
taken  them  all. 

Alcibiades  had  a dog  of  uncommon  size  and  beauty,  which 
cost  him  70  min m (about  $1,422)  ; his  chief  ornament  was  his 
tail,  and  that  he  had  cut  off.  When  told  that  everybody 
blamed  this  freak  of  his,  he  laughed  and  said,  u That  is  just 
what  I want  them  to  do  ; for  if  they  had  not  this  to  talk  about, 
they  would  find  something  worse  to  say  of  me.” 

His  love  for  notoriety  appears  to  have  known  no  bounds. 
Passing  the  market-place,  one  day,  he  witnessed  the  distribu- 
tion of  a donative  among  the  people.  Instantly  he  sent  for 
money  of  his  own,  and  distributed  it  as  he  went  along.  This 
of  course  augmented  the  confusion  and  scramble,  which  so 


470-399.]  ALCIBIADES  AND  SOCRATES . 


43 


greatly  delighted  him  that  he  forgot  that  he  was  carrying  a 
quail  under  his  cloak ; the  bird  took  fright  and  flew  away  ; he 
offered  a great  reward  for  its  recovery,  and  then  all  the  people 
ran  after  the  bird. 

Being  very  liberal,  affable,  and  u a jolly  fellow/’  he  was,  his 
freaks  notwithstanding,  a general  favorite,  and  people  took 
from  him  what  they  would  have  resented  in  any  one  else.  He 
was  very  extravagant  and  excessively  vain.  He  wore  purple 
and  carried  a shield  of  ivory  and  gold.  His  chariots  and 
horses  were  the  finest  in  Athens. 

Eager  for  power  and  pre-eminence,  Alcibiades  took  pains  to 
acquire  eloquence,  which  at  Athens  was  indispensable  to 
success.  He  had  a lisp,  which  became  him,  and  found 
imitators.  He  frequented  the  society  of  philosophers,  and 
especially  that  of  Socrates,  for  whom  he  cherished  a very  high 
regard.  The  lessons  of  that  wise  teacher,  though  admired, 
never  produced  any  serious  effect  on  Alcibiades,  and  ultimately 
became  even  distasteful  to  him. 

Socrates,  born  b.c.  470,  had  learned  from  his  father  Sophro- 
niscus  the  art  of  sculpture,  and  acquired  great  proficiency,  but 
that  art,  though  noble,  fell  short  of  his  aims,  which  were  higher 
and  more  sublime.  To  chisel  statues  in  marble  and  ivory 
appeared  to  him  incomparably  beneath  the  culture  and  forma- 
tion of  virtue,  in  the  hearts  and  souls  of  men,  and  to  that 
lofty  pursuit  he  consecrated  his  extraordinary  powers.  He 
studied  the  writings  of  the  ancients,  and  attended  the  lectures 
and  instructions  of  the  most  eminent  teachers.  His  leading 
idea  was  the  practice  of  wisdom.  To  know  the  truth  and  dis- 
course of  it,  was  good,  but  to  exemplify  it  in  life,  and  enforce 
it  by  good  example,  was  better.  Every  man,  he  taught,  must 
learn  to  examine  himself,  and  know  himself,  before  he  can 
make  any  progress  in  virtue.  The  mind,  he  would  say,  must 
govern  the  senses,  not  the  senses  and  earthly  possessions  the 
mind.  The  man  who  had  the  least  wants,  he  taught,  resembled 
the  godhead  most. 


44 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


Temperance,  or  moderation,  was  to  him  the  foundation  of 
virtue.  Frugality  and  simplicity  marked  the  man  throughout 
his  life.  He  was  wont  to  limit  his  food  to  what  was  needed  to 
sustain  life.  Fond  of  healthful  exercise,  the  sauce  of  hunger 
made  every  dish  palatable  to  him.  At  the  tables  of  his  friends 
he  would  never  exceed  the  limits  of  moderation  in  eating  or 
drinking. 

By  long  and  persistent  training  he  had  made  himself  indiffer- 
ent to  heat  and  cold  ; he  wore  the  same  homely,  scant  clothing- 
in  summer  and  winter,  and  almost  always  went  barefooted. 
Yet  he  was  not  by  any  means  slovenly  in  his  appearance.  An 
anecdote  is  told  of  one  of  his  disciples,  who,  desirous  of  excel- 
ling Socrates  in  the  poverty  of  his  appearance,  affected  to  wear 
a torn  cloak,  to  whom  he  said,  u Friend,  friend,  your  vanity 
peeps  through  the  holes  of  your  cloak.’’ 

Socrates  was  naturally  irritable,  but  had  learnt  not  only  to 
control  that  defect,  but  to  excel  in  calmness,  patience,  and 
forbearance.  A man  in  his  anger  once  struck  him  in  the  face. 
Smiling  at  the  angry  impropriety,  the  philosopher  exclaimed, 
u It  is  a pity  that  we  cannot  provide  for  occasions  when  it  is 
useful  to  wear  a helmet ! ” Informed  that  some  one  had 
slandered  him,  he  said,  “ Let  him  cudgel  me  as  much  as  he 
likes,  if  I am  not  present.” 

But  Xanthippe,  his  wife,  tried  his  patience  by  her  ill-temper 
and  scolding.  One  day  she  had  given  him  a piece  of  her  mind 
with  more  than  usual  vehemence ; the  calm  serenity  and  meek 
endurance  of  Socrates  provoked  a still  more  violent  outburst  of 
abuse,  upon  which  he  quietly  rose  and  left  the  house.  Xan- 
thippe, exasperated  to  the  highest  degree,  seized  a kettle  with 
water,  opened  the  window,  and  dashed  the  contents  on  her 
husband,  who  looked  up,  and  said,  smiling,  UI  expected  some 
rain  after  such  a thunder-storm.” 

In  conversation  Socrates  always  displayed  kindness  and 
great  geniality.  He  loved  to  interest  his  hearers  by  pleasing 
stories  and  illustrations,  and  understood  how  to  prepare  them 


470-399.]  ALCIBIADES  AND  SOCRATES. 


45 


for  the  lofty  truths  he  taught,  and  to  inspire  them  with  the  fear 
of  God. 

He  was  a very  brave  man  and  distinguished  himself  for 
courage  in  battle.  In  the  siege  of  Potidaea  he  saved  the  life  of 
Alcibiades,  and  in  the  battle  of  Delium  the  latter  was  able 
to  save  the  life  of  Socrates.  Filled  with  the  fear  of  God,  he 
was  free  from  the  fear  of  man,  and  believed,  as  well  as  taught, 
that  all  our  doings,  yea,  even  all  that  we  think  and  speak,  are 
known  to  the  gods. 

Socrates  did  not  teach  in  a school  or  any  place  in  particular. 
Early  in  the  morning  he  frequented  the  public  walks,  the  gym- 
nasia, and  the  schools.  At  a later  hour,  he  went  to  the  market- 
place, when  it  was  most  crowded,  and  began  to  converse  with 
any  one,  young  or  old,  rich  or  poor  ; he  neither  asked  nor 
received  rewards ; he  made  no  distinction  of  persons,  and 
treated  of  the  same  general  topics  to  all.  Politicians,  philoso- 
phers, soldiers,  artisans,  young  people,  in  short,  whomever  he 
met,  he  drew  into  conversation.  Catching  men,  he  said,  was 
his  mission.  He  would  ask  such  questions  as  : What  is  piety? 
What  is  honorable?  What  is  temperance?  What  is  courage 
or  cowardice  ? What  is  a city  ? Who  is  the  best  citizen  ? and 
the  like.  Such  a question,  of  course,  drew  forth  an  answer; 
the  answer  led  to  further  questioning,  and  in  that  way  by 
questions  and  answers  he  taught  his  hearers,  until  they  were 
compelled  to  admit  the  absurdity  of  some  of  their  notions  and 
the  superiority  of  his  teaching. 

When  Alcibiades,  as  a young  man,  told  Socrates  that  he 
was  afraid  to  appear  as  a public  speaker,  he  asked  him, 
u Are  you  afraid  to  speak  before  a cobbler?”  u Not  at  all.” 
u Would  you  mind  speaking  before  a copper-smith?”  “ Oh, 
no  ! ” u But  could  you  muster  courage  to  brave  a merchant?  ” 
“ Why,  yes.”  “Well,  then,  of  just  such  persons  is  made  up 
the  whole  of  the  people  of  Athens.  You  are  not  afraid  of 
any  one  of  their  number,  why  should  you  be  afraid  of  them 
together  ? ” 


46 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


The  attachment  of  his  disciples  or  followers  was  extraordi- 
nary, and  honorable  to  the  teacher  and  the  taught.  They  pre- 
ferred his  company  to  that  of  every  one  else,  and  his  conversa- 
tion to  recreation  and  diversion.  Antisthcnes  was  wont  to 
walk  five  miles  a day  from  his  country  home  to  be  with  Soc- 
rates, and  Euclid  did  not  mind  often  to  come  all  the  way  from 
Megara,  about  twenty  miles  distant,  in  order  to  spend  a day 
with  him.  When  hostilities  broke  out  between  Athens  and 
Megara,  the  inhabitants  of  the  latter  city  were  forbidden  on 
pain  of  death  to  visit  Athens.  Yet  such  was  the  affection 
which  linked  Euclid  to  Socrates,  that,  disguised  as  a woman 
and  in  peril  of  life,  he  would  slip  through  the  gate  of  an 
evening  in  order  to  frequent  the  company  of  the  beloved  master. 

JEschines,  who  was  very  poor,  longed  to  become  a disciple 
of  Socrates,  but  was  too  diffident  to  approach  him.  Socrates, 
divining  his  purpose,  accosted  him,  asking,  “ Why  are  you 
afraid  of  me?”  “Because  I have  nothing  to  give  you.” 
“What!”  said  Socrates,  “have  you  so  low  an  estimate  of 
yourself?  Do  3^011  not  give  me  anything  when  you  give 
yourself  to  me  ? ” This  iEschines  became,  one  of  the  most  de- 
voted of  his  disciples,  and  a historian  records  a saying  of  Socrates 
importing  that  he  only  knew  how  to  honor  him.  The  abject 
poverty  of  AEschines  is  said  to  have  occasioned  the  advice  of 
Socrates,  “ to  borrow  money  of  himself  by  lessening  his  daily 
wants.”  This  advice  may  be  beneficial  to  all  who  read  this 
anecdote. 

The  story  of  his  securing  the  handsome  Xenophon  as  a 
disciple  depicts  in  a striking  manner  the  originality  of  Soc- 
rates. Meeting  Xenophon  in  a passage-way,  he  raised  his 
cane  before  him,  saying,  “ Pray  tell  me  where  flour  is  sold.  ” 
“ In  the  market.”  “ And  where  do  they  sell  oil?”  “ In  the 
same  place.”  “But  whither  must  you  go  in  order  to  grow 
wise  and  good?”  The  young  man  looked  embarrassed  and 
kept  silent.  “ Follow  me,”  said  Socrates,  “ and  I will  tell 
you.”  This  was  the  beginning  of  their  friendship. 


453-450.]  ALCIBIADES  AND  SOCRATES. 


47 


The  number  of  the  disciples  of  Socrates  was  very  large,  and 
his  fame  for  wisdom  drew  them  from  other  Grecian  cities,  from 
Megara,  Thebes,  Elis,  Cyrene,  and  others.  One  of  his  friends, 
called  Chserephon,  actually  went  to  Delphi  and  asked  the  ora- 
cle, whether  any  other  man  was  wiser  than  Socrates ; the 
priestess  replied  that  no  other  man  was  wiser.  When  the 
reply  was  told  Socrates,  he  was  greatly  perplexed,  for  he  was 
so  modest  that  he  would  only  allow  thus  much : u that  he  knew 
that  he  knew  nothing.”  One  day,  after  long  thought  upon  the 
declaration  of  the  oracle,  he  tried  to  test  its  truthfulness  by 
questioning  a politician  finned  for  wisdom  on  sundry  matters, 
and  received  answers  which  satisfied  him  that  his  reputed  wis- 
dom was  really  no  wisdom  at  all.  He  then  attempted  to  make 
the  politician  admit  his  want  of  wisdom.  But  in  that  he  failed 
entirely,  for  the  politician  remained  as  firmly  persuaded  of  his 
own  wisdom  as  before.  u Then,”  said  Socrates,  “ I knew  that 
I was  wiser  than  he  ; for  though  neither  he  nor  I knew  anything 
of  what  was  truly  good  and  honorable,  there  was  this  difference 
between  us  : he  fancied  he  knew,  and  I fully  knew  that  I knew 
nothing,  and  herein  I was  wiser  than  he.” 

The  events  connected  with  the  public  life  of  Alcibiades  must 
have  caused  great  sorrow  to  Socrates.  The  former  was  the 
chief  promoter  of  the  Sicilian  expedition.  On  the  eve  of  its 
departure,  Athens  was  indignant  and  horrified  at  the  sacrile- 
gious mutilation  of  all  the  numerous  statues  of  the  god  Hermes 
which  abounded  in  the  city.  Suspicion  pointed  its  finger  at 
Alcibiades  and  his  companions.  He  denied  the  charge  and 
demanded  an  investigation,  but  his  enemies  urged  that  he 
should  sail  with  the  expedition  and  stand  his  trial  later. 
During  his  absence  agitation  against  him  was  kept  up  and  led 
to  his  recall.  But  instead  of  returning  to  Athens,  he  effected 
his  escape  and  went  to  Sparta,  where,  informed  that  the  Athe- 
nians had  condemned  him  to  death,  he  exclaimed,  u I shall 
show  them  that  I am  alive ! ” and  kept  his  word. 

At  Sparta  he  appeared  as  the  open  enemy  of  Athens,  and 


48 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


408] 


conformed  to  Spartan  usage.  His  duplicity  and  base  looseness 
of  conduct,  however,  were  speedily  discerned,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  seek  safety  with  Tissaphernes,  the  Persian  satrap,  in 
Asia  Minor.  He  succeeded  in  enlisting  the  satrap’s  sympathy 
in  favor  of  Athens,  whereupon  the  Athenians  revoked  the  sen- 
tence of  death  and  appointed  him  general.  The  Athenian 
arms  prevailed  against  Sparta,  and  one  of  their  generals  sent 
home  this  brief  report:  u Our  good  luck  is  gone  ; Mindarus  is 
slain ; the  men  are  starving ; we  know  not  what  to  do.” 
Spartan  proposals  for  peace  were  rejected  at  Athens. 

Aleibiades,  now  covered  with  glory,  returned  in  tri- 
umph to  Athens,  wrongly  believing  that  the  past  had 
been  forgotten,  and  buried  in  love.  His  enemies  remained, 
eager  for  an  opportunity  to  humble  him.  That  occurred  not 
long  after  in  the  unsuccessful  issue  of  the  expedition  against 
Andros,  for  which  Aleibiades  was  held  responsible,  and  dis- 
missed from  his  command. 

Deeming  Athens  an  unsafe  place  of  residence,  he  went  to 
the  Thracian  Chersonese,  and,  with  mercenaries  of  his  own, 
made  war  on  the  neighboring  tribes,  by  which  means  he  en- 
riched himself,  and  afforded  protection  to  the  Grecian  cities  in 
the  vicinity. 

Before  the  fatal  battle  of  JEgos  Potamus,  or  Goat’s 
River,  in  which  the  Spartans  defeated  the  Athenians,  he 
was  condemned  to  banishment,  and  sought  refuge  with  Pharna- 
bazus,  the  Persian  satrap.  While  there,  either  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Sparta,  or  more  probably  under  directions  given  by 
Cyrus,  a party  set  out  to  seize  the  famous  exile.  Afraid  to 
attack  him,  they  set  his  house  on  fire  during  the  night ; 
wrapped  in  his  cloak,  and  with  a sword  in  his  right  hand,  he 
rushed  through  the  flames  upon  his  cowardly  assailants,  who, 
dreading  to  approach  him,  poured  upon  him  showers  of  arrows 
until  he  died. 

404 

This  inglorious  and  sad  fate  overtook  Aleibiades  at 
the  age  of  50.  Upon  the  whole  he  did  more  injury  than 


405] 


408-404.]  ALCIBIADES  AND  SOCRATES . 


49 


service  to  his  county.  Endowed  with  all  the  elements  of 
greatness,  with  talent,  ambition,  courage,  presence  of  mind,  and 
fertility  in  resource,  they  were  absolutely  marred  by  his  vanity, 
arrogance,  profligacy,  and  total  want  ol  principle. 

Socrates  was  still  alive  when  this  happened.  His  closing 
years  were  embittered  by  sorrow,  which  culminated  in  the 
charges  preferred  against  him,  that  he  did  not  worship  the 
gods  of  his  native  city,  and  that  his  teaching  corrupted  the 
youth ; the  penalty  due  to  such  crimes  was  death. 

Socrates  appealed  to  his  life,  and  to  his  ceaseless  efforts  for 
the  promotion  of  the  virtue  and  happiness  of  his  fellow-citi- 
zens, and  repelled  the  accusation  in  all  points,  avowing  that  he 
had  always  taught  the  worship  of  the  gods,  as  enjoined  by  the 
state,  and  that  the  statements  which  his  accusers  put  into  his 
mouth  were  either  forged  or  garbled.  His  defence  was  not 
relished  by  the  judges,  who  had  expected  him  to  show  contri- 
tion, and,  like  other  criminals,  to  weep  and  implore  their 
mercy  and  forgiveness.  He  was  committed  to  prison.  The 
rhetor  Lysias  brought  him  a set  speech  for  his  defence,  but 
be  declined  to  use  it,  not  thinking  it  suitable  to  his  dignity. 

Had  you  brought  me  a pair  of  soft  and  beautiful  socks,”  he 
said,  u I should  not  wear  them,  because  I consider  it  unmanly 
so  to  do.” 

At  the  next  meeting  of  the  court  he  was  condemned  by  the 
small  majority  of  five  or  six  votes  out  of  a total  of  about  560. 
He  heard  his  condemnation  with  the  utmost  calmness,  but  his 
disciples  interceded  with  the  judges,  and  offered  in  vain  to  pay 
a large  sum  of  money  for  his  liberation.  Socrates  bade  fare- 
well to  his  judges,  and  forgave  those  who  had  cast  their  votes 
against  him.  Taken  back  to  prison,  where  he  spent  thirty  days  in 
daily  intercourse  with  his  friends,  an  opportunity  provided  for  his 
escape  he  refused  to  embrace,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  unlaw- 
ful. When  one  of  his  friends,  in  the  bitterness  of  his  grief, 
exclaimed,  “Would  that  you  did  not  die  innocept ! ” Socrates 
replied,  smiling,  “ Do  you  prefer  that  I should  die  guilty?  ” 


50 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


On  the  day  of  his  death  fifteen  of  his  friends  had  come  to 
see  him,  when  the  jailer  announced  that,  according  to  law,  he 
must  drink  the  cup  of  hemlock  before  sunset.  His  wife,  carry- 
ing their  youngest  child  in  her  arms,  came  to  bid  him  farewell. 
She  wept  sore,  and  Socrates  bade  his  friends  take  her  home. 
Then  he  spoke  to  them  words  of  consolation,  discoursed  of 
death  and  life,  and  stated  the  grounds  of  his  belief  in  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul. 

Near  sunset  the  jailer  came  in  canning  the  cup.  Socrates 
asked  him  for  instructions  how  to  take  it,  and  after  a brief 
prayer,  put  it  to  his  mouth  and  emptied  it.  His  friends  broke  out 
in  lamentation,  but  he  bade  them  desist.  When  the  poison  be- 
gan to  act,  he  lay  down ; his  feet  grew  cold,  and  his  limbs  were 
stiffening.  Silent  and  sorrowing  his  friends  stood  by  watching 
him.  Suddenly  he  opened  his  eyes,  and  said,  dying  : “ Friends, 
I am  well.  Crito,  we  owe  a thankoffering  to  iEsculapius  ; for- 
get not  to  pay  it.”  Then  he  died. 

One  of  his  friends  wrote:  “Thus  died  the  man  who, 
of  all  with  whom  we  were  acquainted,  was  in  death  the 
noblest,  in  life  the  wisest  and  most  just.” 

In  life  and  doctrine  Socrates  was  nearer  the  Christian  ideal 
than  any  of  his  countrymen. 

REFERENCES. 

For  Alcibiades : Grote,  “ History  of  Greece,”  vol.  II.  p.  768  to  III. 
p.382;  Smith,  “History  of  Greece,”  pp.  322-376;  Smith,  “Diction- 
ary,” etc.,  under  “ Alcibiades.” 

For  Socrates:  Grote,  “History  of  Greece,”  vol.  III.  pp.  429-484; 
Smith,  “History  of  Greece,”  pp.  415-418;  Smith,  “Dictionary,”  etc., 
under  “ Socrates.” 


Long 


May^i°o0A 


:andria 


Alexandria 
Margiana c 


Alexandria  o 


Alexandria 

\Arion 


mtana 


)hthasia 

nexandropoM 


Alexai 


Alexandria 


Alexandria 


E.  50  from  Greenwich 


3ER  & HIS  SUCCESSORS 


Fisk  & Sea.N.Y. 


/ 


399-338.] 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 


51 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 


Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander,  was  king  of  Macedonia,  and 
an  expert  in  the  art  of  war.  He  perfected  the  phalanx,  the 
name  given  to  a military  division  drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a 
parallelogram.  lie  raised  it  from  1,000  to  8,000  men,  massed 
into  a compact  body  of  infantry,  presenting  a line  of  500  men 
abreast  and  16  deep.  They  were  heavily  armed,  and  carried 
spears  from  21  to  24  feet  long,  which  the  men  in  the  first  5 lines 
held  projected  horizontally,  while  the  men  of  the  remaining  11 
lines  carried  them  upwards,  slanting  them  over  the  shoulders  of 
those  before  them.  The  remainder  of  their  armor  consisted  of 
a short  sword,  a circular  shield,  a breastplate,  leggings,  and  a 
helmet.  The  Macedonian  phalanx,  properly  drawn  up,  afforded 
extraordinary  protection  to  every  member  of  the  body,  and 
presented  to  the  enemy  an  impenetrable  forest  of  spears.  By 
means  of  the  phalanx  Philip  subdued  the  Illyrians,  Thracians, 
and  Thessalians,  and  in  the  battle  of  Chseronea  van- 
quished the  Greeks,  to  whom  he  left  the  semblance  of 
liberty,  and  contented  himself  with  being  chosen  their  com- 
mander-in -chief  of  the  expedition  against  Persia.  That  enter- 
prise he  did  not  live  to  carry  into  effect,  but  it  was  accomplished 
by  Alexander,  his  son,  who  excelled  him  in  generalship. 

Alexander  received  an  education  well  suited  to  his  abilities 
and  expectations  ; Leonidas,  a kinsman  of  his  mother,  trained 
him  to  Spartan  simplicity  and  hardihood  ; Lysimachus,  boen 
another  of  his  tutors,  inspired  him  with  ambition,  and  356 
caused  him  to  cherish  the  traditions  of  the  royal  family  — that 
they  were  descended  from  Achilles  — by  giving  that  name  to  his 
pupil. 


[338 


52 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


Dreams  of  future  greatness  filled  the  mind  of  young  Alexan- 
der, and  he  even  envied  his  father  the  greatness  of  his  fame. 
The  announcement  of  his  victories  would  cast  him  down,  and 
made  him  exclaim,  weeping,  “My  father,  I fear,  will  conquer 
the  whole  world,  and  leave  nothing  for  me  to  do ! ” The 
Iliad  of  Homer  was  his  favorite  book  and  inseparable  com- 
panion. 

One  day  a magnificent  war-horse,  called  Bucephalus,  was 
offered  to  Philip  at  an  exorbitant  price.  The  best  grooms 
were  unable  to  manage  him,  and  the  king  had  ordered  him  to 
be  taken  awajT,  when  Alexander  craved  leave  to  try  him.  He 
ran  to  the  horse,  seized  the  bridle,  and  turned  him  to  the  sun, 
for  he  had  noticed  that  he  shied  at  his  shadow  ; he  spoke  kindly 
to  him,  stroked  his  neck,  and  gently  dropping  his  cloak,  vaulted 
lightly  upon  his  back,  and  made  him  go  at  his  pleasure,  amid 
the  loud  acclamations  of  the  spectators,  and  to  the  intense  joy 
of  his  father. 

For  three  years  Alexander  had  the  benefit  of  the  instructions 
of  the  great  Aristotle,  and  at  the  early  age  of  eighteen  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  battle  of  Chseronea.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  ascended  the  throne ; but  his  accession  was  the 
signal  of  revolt  on  the  part  of  the  nations  whom  Philip  had 
subdued.  The  Athenians  scorned  his  youth  and  inexperience. 
Alexander,  at  the  head  of  his  army,  marched  into  Greece,  and 
at  Thermopylae,  a representative  body,  called  the  Ampliictyonic 
Council,  conferred  upon  him  the  command  with  which  his  father 
had  been  clothed.  Then  he  hastened  north  and  quelled,  in  a 
series  of  arduous  campaigns,  the  revolt  of  the  barbarian  tribes. 

For  some  time  no  news  of  him  was  received,  and  gave  color 
to  the  report  of  his  death.  The  Greek  cities  sought  to  shake 
off  the  hated  alliance  with  Macedon,  and  Thebes  besieged  the 
Macedonian  garrison  in  the  Cadmea.  Suddenly  Alexander  with 
his  victorious  army  stood  at  the  gates  and  demanded  submis- 
sion, which  being  refused,  he  carried  the  city  by  storm  and 
caused  it  to  be  razed. 


334] 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT . 


53 


Intelligence  of  the  fate  of  Thebes  spread  terror  throughout 
Greece,  and  caused  his  authority  to  be  generally  recognized ; 
deputations  from  many  quarters,  announcing  the  submission  of 
numerous  cities,  repaired  to  him  at  Corinth,  where  about  this 
time  took  place  his  interview  with  the  celebrated  philosopher, 
Diogenes,  who  lived  in  a tub,  and  was  contented  with  the 
coarsest  necessaries. 

When  everybody  came  to  pay  respects  to  Alexander,  Diog- 
enes refused  to  go,  but  Alexander  went  to  see  him.  He 
found  him  basking  in  the  sun,  and  engaged  him  in  conversa- 
tion. Before  leaving,  he  asked  him  if  he  could  show  him  a 
favor  in  anything.  46  Oh,  yes,”  replied  the  philosopher, 
44  please  stand  out  of  my  sunshine!”  The  appearance  and 
reply  of  Diogenes  excited  universal  laughter,  but  Alexander 
was  differently  impressed,  and  said,  44  If  I were  not  Alexander, 
I would  be  Diogenes.” 

The  expedition  against  Persia,  consisting  of  an  army  of  about 
35,000  men,  including  12,000  Macedonians,  was  undertaken  in 


the  spring.  Alexander  crossed  the  Hellespont,  steering 


[334 


the  admiral’s  trireme  with  his  own  hand.  He  was  the  first 
to  set  foot  on  Asiatic  soil,  and  hurling  his  spear  against  the 
land,  caused  it  to  enter  the  earth,  exclaiming  that  the  gods  had 
given  him  Asia.  He  visited  the  battle-field  of  Troy,  placed 
garlands  on  the  tombs  of  the  ancient  heroes,  and  remarked  at 
the  pillar  of  Achilles  how  he  envied  his  fortune  which  had  given 
him  in  life  a faithful  friend,  and  after  death  a great  poet  to 
celebrate  his  acts. 

Marching  to  the  Granicus,  a small  river  of  north-western 
Asia  Minor,  Alexander  found  a Persian  army  drawn  up  on  the 
opposite  bank  to  dispute  his  passage.  Parmenio,  a.  veteran 
general,  advised  him  not  to  attempt  it,  but  Alexander  ruled  that, 
having  crossed  the  Hellespont,  the  paltry  stream  should  not  stop 
him.  The  Granicus  was  forded,  and  the  Persians  were  routed 
in  the  battle  which  ensued  ; Alexander,  who  was  in  the  thickest  of 
the  fight,  came  very  near  losing  his  life.  One  Persian  had  given 


54 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


334] 


him  a blow  which  split  his  helmet,  and  another,  with  uplifted 
arm  and  scimitar,  was  011  the  point  of  striking  him,  when  his 
friend,  Clitus,  fortunately,  with  one  tremendous  blow,  cut  off 
the  Persian’s  arm,  and  saved  Alexander. 

This  victory  made  him  master  of  Asia  Minor,  which 
he  rapidly  subdued.  On  his  march  be  came  to  Gordium, 
where  he  cut  the  celebrated  Gordian  Knot,  which,  according  to 
tradition,  was  to  be  loosened  only  by  the  conqueror  of  Asia. 
At  Tarsus,  he  imprudently  plunged,  still  heated  with  the  march, 
into  the  cold  waters  of  the  Cydnus,  and  contracted  a fever, 
which  threatened  his  life.  His  physicians  despaired  of  his  re- 
covery, but  Philip,  an  Acarnanian  physician,  prescribed  a 
remedy  ; before  taking  it,  a letter  arrived,  warning  Alexander 
against  Philip,  as  having  been  bribed  by  Darius  to  poison  him  ; 
Alexander  put  the  letter  under  his  pillow,  took  the  medicine 
without  remark,  and  handed  the  letter  to  Philip.  In  answer  to 
the  latter’s  indignant  protestations  of  his  innocence,  he  cried, 
1 1 Hold  your  peace;  I believe  that  you  are  innocent,  and  the 
event  will  show  it.”  He  recovered  to  the  delight  of  the  whole 
army,  which  followed  him  on  his  march  against  Darius,  who, 
impatient  of  delay,  had  committed  the  capital  error  of  getting 
into  Alexander’s  rear,  in  the  narrow  plain  of  Issus,  where  his 
huge  army  of  600,000  fighting  men,  with  its  cumbersome 
train,  was  cooped  up  between  Mount  Amanus  and  the  sea. 
The  approach  of  the  Macedonian  phalanx  filled  the  Persians 
1 with  dismay,  and  in  the  battle  which  ensued  they  were 
defeated  with  terrible  slaughter.  Darius,  panic-stricken, 
fled  in  his  chariot,  and  finding  its  progress  impeded  by  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  mounted  on  horseback,  leaving  behind 
his  bow,  his  shield,  and  his  royal  mantle.  His  mother,  his 
wife,  his  two  daughters,  and  a son  under  age,  became  the  cap- 
tives of  Alexander,  and,  by  his  orders,  were  treated  with  such 
respect  that  the  report  is  said  to  have  caused  the  unfortunate 
Darius  to  exclaim,  “ Preserve,  O gods,  my  empire,  that  I may 
evince  my  gratitude,  but,  if  you  have  decreed  its  overthrow. 


334-331.] 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 


55 


grant  that  it  be  ruled  by  none  other  than  Alexander  of  Mace- 
don.  ” 

On  his  victorious  march  southward,  Tyre,  the  capital  of 
Phoenicia  refused  to  surrender.  The  city  was  situated  on  an 
islet,  nearly  half  a mile  from  the  mainland,  and  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  high  walls.  Commencing  the  siege  without  a fleet, 
Alexander  caused  to  be  built  a solid  mole,  200  feet  broad, 
reaching  from  the  mainland  to  the  islet.  On  the  eve  of  its 
completion,  the  Tyrians,  favored  by  a strong  wind,  by  means 
of  a fireship,  and  their  entire  naval  strength,  almost  destroyed 
the  mole.  It  was  reconstructed  and  made  much  stronger ; a 
powerful  fleet  of  200  sail  was  brought  up,  the  harbors  of  the 
city  were  blockaded,  a practical  breach  was  made,  and  after  a 
most  obstinate  and  ingenious  defence,  sustained  for  seven  months, 
the  city  was  at  last  carried  by  storm,  and  fearfully  punished. 
The  slain  are  said  to  have  numbered  8,000  ; the  remainder,  the 
king  and  those  who  had  sought  shelter  in  the  temple  of  Hercu- 
les excepted,  to  the  number  of  30,000,  were  sold  into  slavery. 


The  siege  and  capture  of  Gaza  and  an  expedition  into 


[332 


Palestine  were  followed  by  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  whose 
inhabitants  hailed  Alexander  as  their  deliverer  from  the  hated 
yoke  of  the  Persians.  Sailing  down  the  Nile,  he  founded  at  its 
mouth  the  city  of  Alexandria,  and  visited  the  celebrated  oracle 
of  Jupiter  Ammon,  in  the  Libyan  desert,  where  the  pliant 
priest  greeted  him  as  the  son  of  Jupiter. 

In  the  following  spring  he  led  his  army  through  Phoe-  p 
nicia  to  the  Euphrates,  and  learning  that  Darius  at  the 
head  of  an  immense  force  was  posted  on  the  Tigris,  he  con- 
tinued his  march  until  he  met  him  at  a place  called  Gauga- 
mela  (the  earners  house) , on  a plain  between  the  Tigris  and  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan.  A terrible  battle,  known  as  oct., 
that  of  Arbela,  was  fought  and  decided  the  destiny  of  331 
Asia.  Darius  fled,  and  Alexander  stood  acknowledged  as  the 
Great  King.  His  progress  now  was  a triumphal  march,  and  he 
entered  in  succession  Babylon,  Susa,  and  Persepolis.  The 


56 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


treasure  that  fell  into  his  hands  was  immense,  for  it  amounted 
to  the  almost  fabulous  sum  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of 
dollars. 

After  a rest  of  four  months,  Alexander  resumed  the  pursuit 
of  Darius,  who  had  fled  first  to  Ecbatana,  and  then  to  the 
inaccessible  regions  beyond  the  Caspian  Sea.  At  Rhagae,  to 
which  place  he  had  pushed  with  such  unexampled  rapidity  that 
many  men  and  horses  died  of  fatigue,  he  ordered  a halt  of 
five  dayg.  On  that  fearful  march  the  army  suffered  from  want 
of  water.  A horseman  who  had  found  some,  filled  his  helmet 
and  presented  it  to  Alexander.  He  took  the  helmet,  but  re- 
fused to  drink  it,  saying  to  the  soldiers,  “ I cannot  drink  and 
see  3Tou  athirst ! ” and  poured  it  on  the  ground.  This  act  of 
self-denial  and  consideration  stirred  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
soldiers,  who  exclaimed,  u Lead  thou  us  on;  we  are  not  hun- 
gry, nor  thirsty,  nor  mortal,  under  the  lead  of  a king  like  thee  !” 

He  soon  heard  that  Darius  had  been  deposed,  seized,  and 
loaded  with  chains  by  a body  of  conspirators  headed  by  Bessus, 
the  satrap  of  Bactria.  The  news  led  Alexander  to  give  chase 
to  the  conspirators.  On  the  fourth  day  he  drew  near  them  ; they 
tried  in  vain  to  persuade  Darius  to  fly  with  them,  and  unwill- 
ing, from  fear  of  punishment,  to  let  him  fall  alive  into  the 
hands  of  Alexander,  wounded  him  mortally,  and  pursued  their 
flight.  A Macedonian  soldier  found  him  dying,  refreshed  him 
with  a drink  of  water  presented  in  his  helmet,  and  received 
his  last  words:  “It  is  my  greatest  misfortune  that  I cannot 
reward  thee  for  thy  kindness ; Alexander  will  reward  thee. 
Through  thee  I extend  my  hand  to  him,  believing  that  the 
gods  will  reward  his  generosity  to  my  mother,  my  wife,  and 
my  children.”  Then  he  died,  before  Alexander  came 
up,  who,  deeply  moved,  covered  the  body  with  his  own 
cloak,  and  caused  it  to  be  buried  with  royal  honors  in  the 
sepulchres  of  the  Persian  kings  at  Persepolis. 

Bessus  escaped  into  Bactria,  but  ultimately  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Alexander,  and  by  his  orders  was  first 
cruelly  mutilated  and  then  put  to  death. 


330] 


331-327.] 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT . 


57 


The  conquest  of  northern  Persia  and  parts  of  central  Asia, 
as  far  east  as  the  Indus,  and  as  far  north  as  the  province  of 
Sogdiana,  beyond  the  Oxus,  to  the  river  Jaxartes  on  the  con- 
fines of  Scythia,  was  accomplished  in  the  course  of  the  r 

J r 1331—327 

next  four  years.  As  a great  Asiatic  monarch,  Alex- 
ander had  deemed  it  prudent  to  adopt  the  manners  of  a Persian 
king,  to  wear  the  costume  of  the  country,  and  to  demand  the 
deference  usually  accorded  to  oriental  despots.  He  had  also 
married  the  beautiful  Roxana,  a Bactrian  princess,  become 
haughty,  cruel,  and  fond  of  flattery,  and  by  these  and  other 
means  estranged  the  hearts  of  his  Macedonian  warriors. 

At  a banquet  the  mention  orf  the  heroes  of  ancient  times  led 
flatterers  to  represent  their  exploits  inferior  to  Alexander’s. 
Clitus,  his  friend,  took  exception  to  their  statements,  and 
boldly  declared  that  those  of  Philip  cast  Alexander’s  in  the 
shade.  The  king,  as  well  as  Clitus,  was  flushed  with  wine  ; 
an  altercation  took  place  in  which  the  former  thrust  a lance 
through  the  body  of  the  friend  who  had  saved  his  life  on  the 
Granicus.  The  bloody  deed  brought  him  to  his  senses,  and  he 
retired,  filled  with  remorse,  to  his  tent,  where  for  three  da}Ts  he 
refused  all  food,  but  at  last  allowed  himself  to  be  consoled 
by  the  words  of  his  friends  and  of  the  soothsayers,  who  as- 
scribed  the  death  of  Clitus  to  temporary  insanity  meted  out 
to  him  by  Dionysus  as  a punishment  for  neglecting  the  cele- 
bration of  his  festival. 

Alexander  next  crossed  the  Indus,  entered  the  Penjab,  and 
defeated  the  brave  Porus,  whose  valiant  bearing  filled  him 
with  admiration.  Brought  before  Alexander  and  asked  b}T  him 
how  he  expected  to  be  treated,  the  Indian  king  replied,  u Like 
a king.”  u And  have  you  no  other  request?”  inquired  Alex- 
ander. 66  No,”  answered  Porus,  u everything  is  comprehended 
in  the  word  king.”  His  expectations  were  more  than  fulfilled  ; 
for  Alexander  not  only  restored  to  him  his  kingdom,  but  en- 
larged his  dominions.  The  engagement  with  Porus  took 


place  on  the  banks  of  the  Hydaspes,  where  Alexander 


[327 


58 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


founded  two  cities,  one  called  Bucephala,  in  honor  of  his 
favorite  war-horse,  who  died  there ; the  other  called  Nicaea,  to 
commemorate  his  victory,  which  made  him  master  of  that  part 
of  India. 

The  terror  of  his  arms  caused  the  tribes,  as  yet  unsubdued 
by  him,  to  cross  the  Hyphasis.  Alexander  would  fain  have 
followed  them,  but  the  Macedonians,  worn  out  by  long  service 
and  tired  of  war,  refused  to  proceed.  The  entreaties  of  Alex- 
ander were  in  vain  ; he  submitted  with  good  grace,  and  after 
erecting  on  the  banks  of  the  river  twelve  colossal  altars  as  the 
boundary  signs  of  his  conquests,  gave  the  order  for  retreat,  to 
the  great  joy  of  his  soldiers,  who  thanked  him,  saying  that 
their  prayer  had  vanquished  the  invincible  victor. 

Then  followed  the  exploration  of  the  Indus,  which 
Alexander  at  first  considered  to  be  a branch  of  the 
Nile,  and  was  accomplished  without  serious  difficulty.  From 
the  mouth  of  that  river  Nearchus  was  ordered  to  take  the 
fleet  along  the  Persian  gulf,  and  rejoin  Alexander  at  Carman, 
to  which  place  he  had  led  his  army  through  the  burning  deserts 
of  Gedrosia. 

-j  The  return  to  Susa,  by  way  of  Persepolis,  terminates 
the  military  exploits  of  Alexander,  and  introduces  him 
resting  at  Babylon,  without  an  enemy  before  him,  engaged  in 
the  organization  of  his  vast  empire,  and  fostering  the  arts 
of  peace.  He  took  a second  wife,  Barsine,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Darius  ; about  80  of  his  generals  married  Asiatic  wives,  and 
10,000  Macedonians  followed  their  example. 

Vast  projects,  military,  commercial,  and  agricultural,  en- 
gaged his  thoughts  ; but  in  the  midst  of  them,  partly  in  conse- 
quence of  his  great  exertions,  parti}7  as  the  result  of  intem- 
perate indulgence,  he  was  attacked  by  a malignant  fever  which 
assumed  the  most  alarming  forms,  and  made  his  recovery  hope- 
less. The  news  of  his  malady  spread  through  the  army,  and 
filled  his  warriors  with  grief  and  consternation  ; they  begged 
to  see  him  once  more,  and  were  admitted  unarmed ; in  loving 


326-324.] 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT . 


59 


and  sorrowful  devotion  they  passed  by  his  bedside,  where  his 
generals  had  assembled.  His  last  words,  in  answer  to  the 
question  to  whom  he  bequeathed  his  kingdom,  were,  “ To  the 
most  worthy”  ; and  one  of  his  last  acts,  the  removal  of 
his  signet  ring  from  his  finger,  and  handing  it  to  Perdiccas. 
He  died  after  an  illness  of  eleven  days,  after  a reign  of  twelve 
years  and  eight  months,  aged  thirty-two  years  and  eight 
months,  in  June,  b.c.  323. 

Alexander  was  doubtless  a great  general  and  a great  soldier. 
As  a conqueror  he  chiefly  benefited  mankind  by  the  spread  of 
civilization,  and  the  increase  of  knowledge,  especially  in  geog- 
raphy and  natural  history.  As  a man,  his  motives  were  not 
lofty;  pride,  ambition,  and  vain  glory  were  the  springs  of  his 
action.  Human  life  he  esteemed  of  little  value,  and  he  often 
ruthlessly  trampled  under  foot  the  rights  of  man.  His  conquests 
enriched  Europe  materially  ; Asia,  intellectually.  His  death  was 
the  signal  of  contention  and  war ; for  not  having  appointed  a 
successor,  all  his  generals  claimed  shares  in  the  inheritance  of 
his  vast  dominions.  Out  of  its  ruins  new  kingdoms  were  formed, 
and  ultimately  absorbed  in  the  great  Roman  empire. 


s' 


REFERENCES. 

Plutarch’s  “ Alexander  ” is  less  trustworthy  than  Arrian’s  “ Ana- 
basis of  Alexander,”  which,  though  compiled  from  earlier  works,  is 
the  best  account  among  ancient  writers. 

The  best  English  writers  on  the  subject  are : Williams,  “ Life  of 
Alexander  ” ; Thirlwall,  “ History  of  Greece,”  vols.  VI.  and  VII. ; 
Grote,  “History  of  Greece,”  vol.  IV.  pp.  515-675.  For  shorter 
treatment,  see  Smith,  “ History  of  Greece,”  pp.  525-551 ; and  Smith, 
“ Dictionary,”  etc.,  under  “ Alexander  III.,”  vol.  I.  pp.  119-122. 


60 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


ROMULUS. 


In  the  low  country  of  Latium,  answering  to  the  modern  Cam- 
753]  Pa&na’  1 ay  the  °ity  of  Alba  Longa,  or  the  Long  White 
City,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Ascanius,  the  son  of 
Aeneas,  and  other  Trojan  exiles. 

As  far  back  as  the  eighth  century  before  Christ,  two  brothers, 
called  Numitor  and  Amulius,  inherited  Alba  Longa.  Amulius, 
the  younger,  usurped  the  throne,  which  really  belonged  to  Nu- 
mitor, who  had  two  children,  a son  and  a daughter ; the  son  he 
murdered,  and  the  daughter,  called  Rhea  Silvia,  he  made  a 
Vestal;  that  is,  a priestess  of  Vesta,  the  goddess  who  presided 
over  the  hearth.  Though  forbidden  to  marry,  she  bore  twin 
sons,  Romulus  and  Remus,  to  Mars,  the  god  of  war. 

Alarmed  at  their  birth,  the  wicked  Amulius  caused  Silvia  to 
be  buried  alive,  and  ordered  the  children  to  be  drowned  in  the 
Tiber.  It  so  happened  that  the  river  had  overflowed  its  banks, 
and  the  basket  or  cradle,  in  which  the  twins  were  exposed,  was 
placed  by  the  servants  in  the  shallow  water ; when  the  water 
subsided,  the  basket  was  caught  in  the  boughs  of  a fig-tree, 
where  a she-wolf  discovered  and  mercifully  nursed  them.  The 
singular  behavior  of  the  four-footed  nurse  arrested  the  attention 
of  Faustulus,  a royal  herdsman,  and  finding  the  children,  he 
would  not  be  outdone  in  compassion  by  the  she-wolf,  and  carried 
them  home  to  Acca  Laurentia,  his  wife,  who  brought  them  up 
with  her  own  children. 

As  they  grew  up  they  became,  like  Faustulus,  herdsmen,  and 
built  huts  on  the  Palatine  hill,  where  they  pastured  their  herds. 
The  herdsmen  of  Numitor  were  wont  to  pasture  theirs  on  the 
Aventine  hill,  and  quarrels  between  the  rival  herdsmen  were  of 


753.] 


ROMULUS. 


61 


frequent  occurrence.  In  one  of  these  Remus  was  arrested,  and 
taken  before  Numitor,  who,  struck  with  his  noble  bearing,  in- 
quired into  his  origin.  Faustulus,  accompanied  by  Romulus, 
repaired  to  Numitor,  and  told  him  the  truth.  Greatly  delighted 
at  the  discovery,  he  forthwith  acknowledged  them  as  his  grand- 
children, and  told  them  the  wrong  that  had  been  done  to  them 
by  Amulius.  The  young  men,  with  the  aid  of  their  companions, 
overthrew  the  usurper  and  restored  their  grandfather  to  the 
throne  of  Alba,  who,  in  gratitude  for  that  they  had  done,  gave 
them  leave  to  found  a city  in  the  very  place  where  they  had  led 
the  life  of  herdsmen. 

The  original  founding  of  the  city  was  a very  simple  affair. 
Romulus  took  a plow,  drawn  by  two  oxen,  and  cut  a furrow  on 
the  square  around  the  Palatine  hill.  An  embankment  r?53 
of  earth  was  thrown  up,  and  within  the  enclosure  were 
built  a number  of  plain  huts,  with  mud  walls  and  thatched  roofs. 
The  brothers  agreed  to  let  augury,  or  the  flight  of  birds,  decide 
which  of  them  should  give  his  name  to  the  city.  Accordingly, 
Romulus  and  Remus  took  their  positions  on  the  opposing  hills, 
to  watch  the  heavens.  Remus,  from  the  Aventine,  saw  six 
vultures  and  told  Romulus,  who  from  the  Palatine  saw  twelve. 
The  shepherds  decided,  on  account  of  the  number  of  the  birds, 
that  Romulus  should  name  the  city.  Remus,  angry  at  his  de- 
feat, leaped  in  scorn  over  his  brother’s  walls,  and  provoked  the 
wrath  of  Romulus,  who  slew  him,  exclaiming,  “ So  die  whoever 
hereafter  shall  leap  over  my  walls.”  Romulus,  being  now  sole 
ruler,  called  the  city  Rome,  after  his  own  name. 

In  order  to  attract  a population,  Romulus  made  his  city  an 
asylum,  and  soon  gathered  many  fugitives  from  justice,  who, 
with  the  shepherds  and  Albanian  immigrants,  numbered  3,300 
fighting  men.  In  token  of  his  royalty  he  established  a body- 
guard of  300  horsemen,  called  equites , or  knights.  When  he 
appeared  in  public,  twelve  officers,  called  lictors , a sort  of  execu- 
tive police,  went  before  him.  He  also  appointed  a senate , 
chosen  from  the  most  distinguished  of  his  subjects,  to  aid  him 


62 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


ill  the  government  of  the  city ; they  were  called  patres , or 
fathers,  and  their  descendants,  clothed  with  hereditary  privi- 
leges, were  known  as  patricians.  The  mass  of  the  people  were 
called  plebeians . The  new  city  was  divided  into  three  districts, 
called  tribus , and  every  tribus  into  ten  curiae . There  were, 
therefore,  thirty  curiae , and  the  citizens  of  the  several  curiae 
were  summoned  to  the  market-place,  or  forum , to  deliberate  on 
public  affairs. 

The  new  city  was  filled  with  men,  but  destitute  of  women. 
Romulus  invited  the  neighboring  people  to  contract  marriages 
with  his  subjects  ; but  as  these  had  not  a good  reputation,  his 
proposals  were  declined.  Then  he  proclaimed  a festival  in 
honor  of  Neptune,  with  popular  games  and  sports,  which  at- 
tracted a large  number  of  visitors,  especially  of  Sabines  and 
Latins,  who  had  come  with  their  wives  and  daughters. 

While  the  festivities  were  in  progress,  at  a given  signal,  the 
Roman  youths  rushed  upon  their  guests,  each  seized  a maiden 
and  carried  her  to  his  home.  Their  stricken  and  injured  par- 
ents returned  and  prepared  for  vengeance.  The  Latins  de- 
clared war  against  Rome,  but  were  defeated ; Acron,  one  of 
their  kings,  was  slain  by  Romulus.  The  Sabines  also,  com- 
manded by  Titus  Tatius,  their  king,  marched  against  Rome  in 
formidable  strength,  and  compelled  Romulus  to  retire  into  the 
city,  which  he  had  made  much  stronger  by  the  erection  of  a 
fortress  on  the  top  of  the  Saturnine  hill,  afterwards  called  the 
Capitoline,  which  was  divided  by  a swampy  valley  from  the 
city.  That  fortress,  or  capital , was  commanded  by  Tarpeius, 
whose  daughter  Tarpeia,  dazzled  with  the  golden  ornaments 
worn  by  the  Sabine  soldiers,  promised  to  betray  the  hill  to  them, 
if  they  would  give  her  the  ornaments  which  they  wore  on  their 
left  arms.  They  consented,  and  were  admitted  by  her  at  night ; 
but  when  she  claimed  her  reward,  they  threw  upon  her  the  shields 
which  they  had  carried  on  their  left  arms,  and  crushed  her  to 
death.  At  day,  the  Romans  tried  to  recover  the  hill,  and  fought 
with  the  Sabines  in  the  valley.  For  a long  while  the  battle 


753-716.] 


ROMULUS . 


63 


lasted,  but  at  length  seemed  to  favor  the  Sabines.  In  the 
midst  of  the  struggle,  the  Sabine  women  rushed  in  between  the 
combatants,  and  besought  their  fathers  and  brothers  to  be 
friends  with  their  husbands.  Their  prayers  were  heard  ; peace 
was  concluded,  and  the  two  nations  agreed  to  form  one  people, 
though  each  nation  was  governed  by  its  own  king.  The  Ro- 
mans, ruled  by  Romulus,  dwelt  on  the  Palatine,  and  the  Sabines, 
ruled  by  Titus  Tatius,  on  the  Capitoline  and  Quirinal  hills, 
where  they  built  a new  city.  The  two  kings  and  their  senates 
were  wont  to  meet  for  consultation  in  the  valley  between  those 
hills,  and  called  the  place  comitium , that  is,  the  place  of  meet- 
ing. 

The  rule  of  the  two  kings  did  not  last  long,  and  upon  the 
violent  death  of  Tatius,  Romulus  reigned  alone  for  thirty  years. 
Under  his  long  and  prosperous  rule  Rome  grew  apace,  respected 
and  feared  by  her  neighbors.  It  is  difficult  to  get  at  the  truth 
of  his  death  ; some  say  that  it  was  violent,  but  the  legend  runs 
that  one  day,  on  the  fifth  of  August,  while  he  was  reviewing 
his  army  on  the  plain  of  Mars,  the  sun  was  suddenly  eclipsed, 
darkness  covered  the  earth,  and  a storm  dispersed  the  people. 
When  the  storm  was  over,  Romulus  had  disappeared,  for  his 
father,  Mars,  had  taken  him  in  a fiery  chariot  to  heaven.  That 
same  night  he  appeared  to  Proculus  Julius,  and  bade  him  tell 
his  mourning  people  that  they  should  become  the  lords  of  the 
world,  and  that  he  would  watch  over  them  as  their  guardian 
god.  Then  he  ascended  to  heaven,  and  the  people  thenceforth 
worshipped  him  under  the  name  of  Quirinus,  and  appointed  in 
his  honor  a festival,  called  the  Quirinalia,  which  was  held  on 
the  seventeenth  of  February. 

REFERENCES. 

The  best  modern  account  of  Romulus  is  probably  that  of  Niebuhr, 
“ History  of  Rome,”  vol.  I.  A good  sketch  is  found  in  Smith,  “ Dic- 
tionary,” etc.,  under  “ Romulus.’’  See  also  Plutarch,  “ Romulus.” 


64 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


TARQUINIUS  THE  PROUD. 

Tarquinius  Superbus,  or  the  Proud,  usurped  the  throne  of 
Rome  after  he  had,  by  the  hand  of  assassins,  murdered  Servius 
534-509]  ^u^us>  predecessor.  His  rule  was  marked  by 
cruelty  and  tyranny.  Utterly  selfish,  he  trampled 
under  foot  the  rights  of  the  senate,  and  of  the  people,  and  thus 
made  the  Romans  loathe  the  kingly  office.  One  of  his  first  acts 
was  to  abolish  the  privileges  enjoj^ed  by  the  people,  and  to  rid 
himself  of  such  senators  and  patricians  as  stood  in  the  way  of  his 
exactions  and  oppressions.  All  whom  he  mistrusted,  or  whose 
wealth  he  coveted,  were  put  to  death,  or  driven  into  exile. 
The  poor  he  compelled  to  work  at  miserable  wages  upon  his 
magnificent  buildings  and  the  public  works  ; and  the  hardships 
they  suffered  were  so  great  that  many  preferred  death  to  life. 
He  surrounded  himself  with  a strong  body-guard  of  hired  for- 
eigners, by  means  of  which  he  was  enabled  to  do  as  he 
pleased. 

He  did  not  even  spare  his  own  family  and  relatives.  One  of 
his  sisters  had  married  M.  Brutus,  a very  wealthy  man  who 
died  and  left  two  sons.  Tarquinius,  coveting  their  property, 
killed  the  elder  son ; and  the  younger,  Junius,  escaped  the 
same  fate  only  by  feigning  idiocy.  The  tyrant  accordingly 
deemed  him  harmless,  and  nicknamed  him  Brutus,  that  is,  the 
fool.  But  this  was  a great  mistake. 

One  day  an  unsightly  old  woman  appeared  before  the  king, 
and  offered  to  sell  him  nine  rolls  or  books,  which  she  carried  in 
her  arms,  for  three  hundred  pieces  of  gold.  The  books  were 
said  to  contain  the  predictions  of  a famous  prophetess,  known 
as  the  Sibyl.  The  king  refused  her  offer  with  scorn.  The 


534-509] 


TARQUINIUS  THE  PROUD . 


65 


woman  went  away,  burnt  three  of  the  books,  and  returned, 
demanding  the  same  price  for  the  six.  Again  the  king  refused  ; 
she  left,  burnt  three  more,  and  returned  with  the  remaining 
three,  saying,  u King,  will  you  buy  the  last  three  books  and 
pay  the  price  I asked  for  the  nine  ? ” Struck  by  the  strange 
request,  the  king  consulted  the  soothsayers,  who  recommended 
him  to  buy  the  books  at  any  price.  So  the  woman  got  her 
price  for  the  books,  which  were  the  famous  Sibylline  books. 

By  order  of  Tarquinius  they  were  deposited  in  the  vaults  of 
the  Capitol.  In  later  times  they  were  consulted  on  important 
occasions,  such  as  wars  and  public  calamities ; it  is  thought 
that  they  were  written  in  Greek  characters  on  palm-leaves,  and 
that  they  were  consulted  by  lot ; the  leaves  were  shuffled,  and 
the  verses  written  on  the  one  drawn  applied  to  the  case  in 
hand. 

Tarquinius,  who  was  very  superstitious,  one  day  was  much 
troubled  by  a strange  occurrence.  A snake  crawled  out  from 
the  altar  in  the  royal  palace,  put  out  the  fire,  and  seized  the 
entrails  of  the  victim  that  lay  upon  it.  The  king  sent  Titus  and 
Aruns,  his  sons,  accompanied  b}7  Junius  Brutus,  to  consult  the 
oracle  at  Delphi.  The  royal  princes  carried  rich  presents  to 
the  priestess,  but  Brutus  only  a stick  of  cornel  wood  which  he 
had  hollowed,  and,  it  would  seem  as  betokening  his  own  hidden 
talents,  filled  up  the  hollow  with  a rod  of  gold.  This  offering 
was  grateful  to  the  priestess,  who,  in  answer  to  their  question, 
who  was  to  reign  at  Rome  after  their  father,  told  the  princes, 
“ He  who  first  kisses  his  mother.”  They  agreed  to  keep  the 
reply  from  their  younger  brother  Sextus,  and  to  draw  lots  them- 
selves. Brutus,  having  a better  understanding  of  the  meaning 
of  the  oracle,  pretended  to  fall  as  the}7  were  leaving  the  temple, 
and  kissed  the  earth,  the  mother  of  all  living. 

The  fall  of  Tarquinius,  after  an  oppressive  reign  of  twenty- 
five  years,  came  about  by  an  incident  connected  with  the  siege 
of  Ardea,  during  which  his  son  Sextus  was  guilty  of  an  atro- 
cious deed,  which  had  caused  the  beautiful  and  virtuous  Lucretia, 


66 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C, 

the  wife  of  Collatinus,  to  take  her  life  by  plunging  a poniard 
into  her  bosom.  Brutus  and  a number  of  friends  swore  to 
avenge  her  death  on  the  Tarquins.  He  harangued  the  people, 
and  induced  them  to  pass  a decree  deposing  the  king,  and 
banishing  him  and  his  family  from  the  city ; he  then  went  to 
the  camp  at  Ardea ; and  induced  the  army  likewise  to 
abandon  the  cause  of  the  tyrant.  Tarquinius,  with  Titus 
and  Aruns,  his  sons,  went  for  safety  to  Caere  in  Etruria,  while 
Sextus,  his  youngest  son,  repaired  to  Gabii,  which  belonged  to 
him,  and  soon  after  died  a violent  death. 

Then  the  Romans  abolished  the  royal  office,  and  declared 
their  state  a republic.  Under  their  new  constitution,  the  gov- 
ernment devolved  on  two  consuls,  clothed  with  royal  authority, 
who  were  chosen  annually  from  the  ranks  of  the  patricians,  held 
office  for  only  one  year,  and  were  responsible  for  their  official  con- 
duct. They  presided  over  the  senate  and  commanded  the  army. 

Brutus  and  Collatinus  were  chosen  the  first  consuls.  Brutus 
began  his  office  by  filling  the  vacant  places  in  the  senate  with 
members  of  the  equestrian  order ; and  these  new  senators  were 
styled  Conscript  Fathers . 

The  new  republic  was  born  in  troublous  times,  and  exposed 
at  once  to  war.  The  Tarquins  sent  ambassadors  demanding  the 
restitution  of  their  property,  who,  under  cover  of  that  request, 
succeeded  in  forming  a plot  for  the  restoration  of  the  royal 
family.  The  plot  was  discovered,  and  the  two  sons  of  Brutus 
unfortunately  were  implicated  in  it.  It  was  his  sad  duty  to 
pronounce  sentence  upon  them  as  traitors,  and  to  witness  as  a 
judge  the  execution  of  that  sentence.  He  buried  the  feelings 
of  a parent  in  his  patriotism.  The  treasonable  plot  cancelled 
the  agreement  of  giving  up  the  royal  property.  The  personal 
estate  was  abandoned  to  the  people  to  plunder,  and  all  their 
landed  estate  divided  among  the  poor,  except  the  plain  between 
the  city  and  the  river,  which  was  reserved  for  public  use.  It 
was  consecrated  to  Mars,  and  called  Campus  Martius , that  is, 
the  field  of  Mars. 


509-507.] 


TARQUINIUS  THE  PROUD. 


67 


Then  Tarquinius,  aided  bv  the  Etruscans,  marched  against 
Rome.  A battle  was  fought,  in  which  Aruns,  the  king’s  son, 
and  Brutus  met  in  single  combat,  and  slew  each  other.  The 
event  of  the  battle  was  doubtful,  and  both  sides  claimed  the 
victory ; but  in  the  night  a divine  voice  proclaimed  that  the 
Romans  had  conquered  because  the  Etruscans  had  lost  one 
man  more.  Then  the  Etruscans  fled.  Valerius,  who  was  con- 
sul, delivered  the  funeral  oration  of  Brutus. 

Lars  Porsena,  king  of  Clusium  in  Etruria,  at  the  instance  of 
Tarquinius,  marched  with  a powerful  army  against  Rome,  took 


the  Janiculum,  one  of  the  hills,  and  only  the  Tiber 


[507 


spanned  by  a wooden  bridge  kept  him  from  the  city. 

The  bridge  was  defended  by  Horatius  Codes  and  two  other 
heroes  against  the  whole  Etruscan  army,  while  the  Romans 
were  breaking  down  the  parts  nearest  the  city.  Lartius  and 
Herminius,  his  companions,  retreated  when  the  bridge  was 
about  to  fall.  It  came  down  with  a mighty  crash,  amidst  the 
shouts  of  the  Romans.  Then  Horatius  prayed  to  father  Tiberi- 
nus  to  protect  him,  plunged  into  the  stream,  and  swam  safely 
across  it,  heedless  of  the  arrows  which  the  enemy  sent  after 
him.  The  grateful  citizens  erected  a statue  in  his  praise, 
and  gave  him  as  much  land  as  he  could  plough  round  in  one 
day. 


Although  shut  out  from  Rome,  the  enemy  besieged  it,  and 
hoped  to  starve  the  citizens  into  submission.  In  order  to  save 
the  city,  a patrician  youth,  called  Caius  Mucius,  undertook  to 
assassinate  Porsena.  With  a dagger  concealed  in  his  dress, 
he  crossed  the  river,  entered  the  camp,  and  got  safely  to  the 
royal  tent,  where  the  soldiers  were  receiving  their  pay.  Mis- 
taking the  secretary  for  the  king,  Mucius  killed  him  on  the 
spot.  He  was  seized,  disarmed,  and  taken  to  Porsena.  Un- 
daunted, he  gave  his  name,  and  avowed  his  design,  adding  that 
many  more  Romans  were  ready  to  attempt  his  life. 

The  king  ordered  him  to  be  burnt  alive  unless  he  revealed 
the  whole  of  the  plot. 


68 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


Mucins  said  that  men  who  purposed  to  do  a glorious  thing 
held  life  of  little  value,  and,  in  proof  of  what  he  said,  thrust 
his  right  hand  into  the  flame  of  the  altar,  and  unflinchingly 
allowed  the  fire  slowly  to  consume  it.  Amazed  at  the  gallant 
act,  Porsena  ordered  him  to  be  set  free,  and  to  return  unhurt. 
Then  Mucius,  in  order  to  show  his  gratitude  for  the  king's 
generosity,  exclaimed,  u Three  hundred  noble  youths  have 
sworn  to  have  thy  life.  On  me  the  lot  fell  first ; the  others  will 
be  here  in  their  turns.”  From  the  loss  of  his  right  hand, 
Mucius  obtained  the  surname  u Scaevola,”  that  is,  the  left- 
handed. 

Terrified  at  the  announcement,  Porsena  made  proposals  for 
peace,  according  to  which  the  Romans  engaged  to  restore  the 
Veientian  territory  across  the  Tiber,  and  the  Etruscans  to  evac- 
uate the  Janiculum.  For  the  due  performance  of  their  part  the 
Romans  had  to  give  hostages.  One  of  them  was  Cloelia,  a 
noble  Roman  maiden,  who,  with  her  companions,  had  made  her 
escape  by  swimming  across  the  Tiber,  but  was  honorably  re- 
stored by  the  Romans.  Porsena  admired  her  pluck,  and 
unwilling  to  be  outdone  in  generosity,  not  only  set  her  free,  but 
allowed  her  to  extend  the  same  privilege  to  other  hostages. 
She  chose  the  youngest,  and  returned  home,  rejoicing  not  only 
in  her  freedom,  but  in  the  possession  of  a horse,  adorned  with 
splendid  trappings,  which  Porsena  had  given  to  her,  while  he 
sent  to  the  Roman  people  a statue  of  a female  on  horseback, 
which  was  set  up  in  the  Sacred  Way. 

Tarquinius,  though  disappointed  by  the  course  of  Porsena, 
did  not  relinquish  his  efforts  against  the  republic.  From  the 
home  of  his  son-in-law,  Octavius  Mamilius,  at  Tuscu- 
lum,  he  stirred  up  the  thirty  Latin  towns  to  espouse  his 
cause,  and  a final  battle  was  fought  at  the  lake  Regillus.  The 
dictator,  Aulus  Postumius,  commanded  the  Romans,  while  Tar- 
quinius and  his  son-in-law  led  the  Latins.  It  was  a fierce  and 
bloody  struggle,  resembling  that  in  the  plain  of  Troy.  Chief 
engaged  chief  in  single  combat,  and  almost  all  the  chiefs  on 


496] 


496-495.] 


TARQUINIUS  THE  PROUD . 


69 


both  sides  were  slain  or  wounded.  Tarquinius  himself  was 
wounded,  and  fled  for  his  life,  and  the  Latins  followed  his 
example. 

According  to  old  tradition  the  Romans  gained  this  battle  not 
without  divine  aid.  The  dictator,  Aulus,  saw  two  youths  of 
godlike  aspect  and  heroic  stature,  clad  in  resplendent  armor, 
and  mounted  on  two  snow-white  steeds  at  the  head  of  the 
Roman  horse  charging  the  Latins,  and  leading  the  former  to 
victory.  They  were  believed  to  have  been  Castor  and  Pollux, 
and,  in  the  days  of  Cicero,  the  mark  of  a horse’s  hoof  on  a 
rock,  close  by  the  lake,  was  shown  as  a token  of  their  presence. 

But  be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that  the  Latins  were 
crushed,  and  that  Tarquinius,  unable  to  find  other 
people  to  fight  his  battles,  was  glad  to  secure  a place  of 
refuge  at  Cumae,  where  he  died,  a childless  and  wretched  old 
man. 


[495 


REFERENCES. 

Plutarch,  “ Publicola  ” ; Macaulay,  “ Lays  of  Ancient  Rome  ” ; 
Smith,  “ Dictionary,’’  etc.,  under  “ Tarquinius.” 


70 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


264-241]  DUILIUS  AND  REGULUS. 


The  famous  city  of  Carthage  in  Northern  Africa  was 
founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  the  greatest  and  most  enterprising 
commercial  nation  of  ancient  times.  Their  fleets  were  sailing 
in  every  sea,  and  visited  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  earth 
then  known.  At  an  early  period  they  went  to  Britain  for  tin, 
and  not  only  ventured  as  far  as  Senegal  and  the  Canary  Islands, 
but  circumnavigated  Africa. 

The  most  celebrated  and  important  city  of  Phoenicia  was 
Tyre.  Among  the  numerous  colonies  she  established  was  Car- 
thage, and,  according  to  legend,  under  very  peculiar  circum- 
stances. Dido,  the  daughter  of  a king  of  Tyre,  escaped  from 
the  power  of  her  brother  Pygmalion  with  the  treasures  for  the 
sake  of  which  he  had  murdered  her  husband.  A band  of 
noble  Tyrians  shared  her  flight,  and,  as  they  were  sailing  along 
the  coast  of  Africa,  they  noted  a spot  well  suited  to  the 
establishment  of  a city.  They  landed  and  made  a bargain 
with  the  natives  to  grant  them  by  purchase  as  much  land  as 
could  be  covered  with  a bulks  hide.  Dido  then  cut  the  hide 
into  very  narrow  strips,  and  so  enclosed  a large  tract,  on  which 
she  built  a city ; when  the  newly  founded  city  had  grown  in 
size,  the  space  originally  enclosed  with  the  hide  became  the 
1 site  of  the  fortress,  and  in  memory  of  its  acquisition 
called  the  place  Byrsa,  that  is,  a bulks  hide. 

The  Romans  called  the  Carthaginians,  on  account  of  their 
Phoenician  origin,  Poenians,  or  Punians,  and,  because  they 
considered  them  to  be  very  treacherous,  were  wont  to  describe 
treachery,  or  faithlessness,  by  the  phrase  u Punic  faith.” 

Carthage,  though  not  the  only  Phoenician  colony  in  North 
Africa,  was  doubtless  the  greatest,  and  the  mother  city^  of 


264-241.] 


DUILIUS  AND  REG  ULUS. 


71 


numerous  colonies  of  her  own  planting.  Her  empire  in  Africa 
extended  from  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  (Straits  of  Gibraltar) 
to  the  Great  Desert,  and  in  the  Mediterranean  over  the  con- 
quered islands  of  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  Sicily.  Her  enter- 
prise was  so  great  and  successful  that,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Punic  Wars,  all  the  islands  of  the  Western  Mediterranean  be- 
longed to  her,  and  that  her  colonies  were  found  on  many  points 
of  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  even  upon  islands  in  the  Atlantic. 

Carthage  was  governed  by  two  chief  magistrates,  or  judges, 
called  Suffetes;  there  was  also  a large  popular  assembly,  out 
of  which  were  chosen  for  life  a council  of  one  hundred  elders, 
who,  for  convenience,  met  in  twenty  boards  of  five  members 
each,  and  were  the  executive  of  the  state. 

When  the  Romans  began  to  extend  their  conquests  beyond 
Italy,  hostile  contact  with  the  Carthaginians  was  inevitable. 
The  coveted  possession  of  Sicily,  the  pearl  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, was  the  first  cause  of  the  long  wars,  waged  by  those  pow- 
erful nations.  Carthage  held  the  greater  part  of  the  island, 
while  Syracuse,  ruled  by  king  Hiero,  and  Messana,  occupied  by 
the  Mamertines,  a band  of  robbers,  were  independent  of  her 
rule.  The  latter  had  been  defeated  by  Hiero,  and,  distrustful 
of  the  proffered  aid  of  the  Carthaginians,  invoked  that  of 
the  Romans,  who  successively  worsted  Hiero  and  the  Cartha 
ginians.  This  was  the  commencement  of  the  First  [2^4-241 
Punic  War,  which  lasted  thirteen  years. 

Carthage  sent  forth  a formidable  fleet,  and  vexed  the  Romans 
in  many  ways.  Until  then  almost  all  their  conquests  had  been 
made  on  land,  for  they  had  no  fleet,  and  without  a fleet  they 
could  not  cope  with  Carthage.  Fortunately  for  them  a Cartha- 
ginian vessel,  which  had  been  cast  ashore,  was  seized,  and  used 
as  a model  in  the  building  of  a Roman  fleet  of  two  hundred 
sail,  which,  with  their  usual  energy,  they  completed  in  two 
months.  They  drilled  their  sailors,  and  contrived  by  ingenious 
devices  to  overcome  the  clumsiness  of  their  ships,  and  the  in- 
experience of  their  crews.  Caius  Duilius,  one  of  the  Roman 


72 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


consuls,  is  credited  with  the  invention  of  a mast,  set  up  at  the 
prow  of  each  ship,  to  which  was  attached  a movable 
platform,  or  drawbridge.  At  the  approach  of  a hostile 
ship,  the  drawbridge  was  lowered,  a grappling  iron  at  the  end 
of  it  held  both  ships  fast  together,  the  soldiers  rushed  upon  the 
bridge,  and  engaged  the  foe  in  hand  to  hand  fight.  The  device 
proved  a grand  success  in  the  famous  battle  of  My  he,  in  which 
Duilius  was  victorious,  and  took,  or  disabled,  50  Carthaginian 
vessels.  A triumph  was  decreed  to  Duilius,  and  a white  mar- 
ble column,  ornamented  with  the  beaks  of  the  captured  ships, 
erected  to  his  honor. 

A second  naval  victory,  obtained  by  the  Romans  three  }Tears 
later,  off  the  Lipari  islands,  emboldened  them  to  undertake  the 
invasion  of  Africa.  A fleet  of  330  ships,  manned  by  140,000 
sailors  and  marines,  and  commanded  by  the  consuls  L.  Manlius 
Yulso  and  M.  Attilius  Regulus,  sailed  for  Africa.  They  met 
and  defeated  the  Carthaginian  fleet  of  350  ships,  manned  by 

150.000  men,  off  Ecnomus,  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  proceeded  to 
Africa,  landed,  plundered  and  wasted  the  country.  Destruc- 
tion marked  their  path,  and  the  news  of  their  approach  spread 
terror  through  Carthage.  Ambassadors  sent  out  to  Regulus, 
now  in  sole  command,  suing  for  peace,  were  treated  with  scorn  ; 
but  the  opportune  arrival  of  Xanthippus,  a Spartan  mercenary, 

who  was  put  in  command  of  the  Carthaginian  troops, 
turned  the  scales  in  a brilliant  victory  over  Regulus. 

The  Spartan  leader  had  only  a small  army  of  12,000  foot, 

4.000  horse,  and  100  elephants  to  oppose  to  the  much  larger  force 
of  the  Romans,  but,  confident  of  success,  he  marched  into  the 
open  country  to  meet  the  enemy,  and  opened  the  engagement 
with  a charge  of  the  elephants  and  the  horse,  so  well  directed 
and  executed  as  to  seize  the  Romans  with  panic,  and  to  con- 
summate their  total  overthrow  ; 30,000  were  slain  in  battle, 
hardly  2,000  escaped,  while  Regulus  himself  and  500  Romans 
were  taken  prisoners.  A Roman  fleet,  sent  out  to  rescue  the 
remnant  of  the  consular  army,  on  the  return  voyage  was  over- 


260-250.] 


DUILIUS  AND  REG  ULUS. 


73 


taken  by  a storm,  and  almost  the  whole  armament  was  either 
wrecked  or  destroyed. 

The  Carthaginians  then  transferred  the  war  to  Sicily,  but 
were  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Panormus.  Metellus,  the  |~250 
proconsul  of  Sicily,  who  commanded  the  Romans,  had 
turned  the  sad  experience  of  Regulus  to  good  account.  Per- 
ceiving that  the  enemy  had  again  brought  130  elephants  into 
the  field,  and  aware  that  these  animals  are  easily  terrified,  and 
when  wounded  rather  a hindrance  than  an  advantage  to  the  foe, 
he  made  them  the  primary  object  of  his  attack.  They  turned 
round  in  wild  dismay,  and  spread  confusion  through  the  ranks 
of  the  Carthaginians,  who  were  routed.  A large  number  of 
prisoners  and  104  elephants  were  captured  and  led  in  triumph 
to  Rome. 

The  disastrous  event  of  Panormus  led  the  Carthaginians  to 
send  an  embassy  to  Rome,  instructed  to  negotiate  peace  and  an 
exchange  of  prisoners.  They  allowed  Regulus  to  accompany 
the  embassy  under  promise  of  returning  into  captivity  if  their 
proposals  were  rejected,  thinking  that  in  order  to  obtain  his 
own  liberty^,  he  would  exert  his  influence  at  home  in  securing, 
at  least,  an  exchange  of  prisoners.  But  they  did  not  know  his 
mettle ; for  instead  of  urging  his  countrymen  to  agree  to  the 
proposals  of  the  embassy,  he  advised  them  to  refuse  their  con- 
sent, because  he  believed  a peace  to  be  injurious  to  the  interests 
of  Rome.  Unmoved  by  the  entreaties  of  his  friends  to  stay  at 
Rome,  the  stern  patriot,  true  to  his  honor,  and  superior  to  sel- 
fish advantage,  returned  to  Carthage  to  meet  a martyr’s  death. 

The  legend  says,  that  the  Carthaginians,  upon  learning  from 
their  ambassadors  that  Regulus,  instead  of  advocating  the  pro- 
posals for  peace,  had  used  his  influence  against  their  adoption, 
were  exasperated  beyond  measure,  and  took  a terrible  revenge ; 
they  cut  off  his  eyelids,  and  cast  him  into  a dark  dungeon,  and, 
after  he  had  become  accustomed  to  the  gloom,  suddenly  exposed 
him  to  the  fierce  rays  of  a burning  sun,  and  then,  to  aggravate 
his  misery,  placed  him  in  a cask,  the  sides  of  which  were 


74 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


studded  with  iron  spikes,  and  rolled  it  down  a hill  until  he 
died. 

The  news  of  his  barbarous  death,  of  course,  shocked  all  Rome, 
and,  in  a barbarous  age,  begot  a barbarous  retaliation.  The 
senate,  it  is  said,  delivered  Hamilcar  and  Bostar,  two  of  the 
most  distinguished  Carthaginian  prisoners,  to  the  family  of 
Regulus,  who,  in  their  turn,  put  them  to  death  with  cruel  tor- 
ments. 

The  war  continued  with  fluctuating  successes  and  defeats  on 


both  sides  eight  years  longer,  until  in  the  naval  battle,  fought 
off  the  island  of  iEgusa,  the  Carthaginians,  commanded 
by  Hamilcar,  were  defeated  in  a decisive  victory  by  the 
Roman  consul,  C.  Lutatius.  Proposals  for  peace  ensued,  and 
were  granted  on  condition  that  the  Carthaginians  evacuated 
Sicily,  restored  the  prisoners,  and  paid  an  indemnity  of  2,200 
n talents,  payable  in  20  years.  The  idemnity  was  after- 
wards raised  to  3,200  talents,  and  the  term  for  payment 
lessened  from  20  to  10  years.  Thus  ended  the  First  Punic  War. 


REFERENCES. 

Niebuhr,  “History  of  Rome/’  vol.  III.;  Smith,  “Dictionary,”  etc., 
under  “ Duilius  ” and  “ Regulus.”  See  also  Niebuhr,  “ Lectures  on 
Roman  History,”  ed.  of  Schmitz,  vol.  I.  One  of  the  best  authorities 
for  the  entire  period  of  the  Punic  Wars  is  Halthaus,  “History  of 
Rome  during  the  Punic  Wars,”  Leipzig,  1846,  but  accessible  only  to 
German  students. 


247-219.] 


HANNIBAL . 


75 


HANNIBAL 


The  illustrious  Hannibal,  son’ of  Hamilcar  Barca,  was  born 
the  very  3'ear  in  which  his  father  was  appointed  to  the  r 
command  in  Sicily.  He  was  only  nine  years  old  when 
his  father  took  him  with  him  into  Spain,  and  made  him  swear 
upon  the  altar  eternal  enmity  to  Rome.  That  oath,  which  he 
never  forgot,  is  the  key  to  his  life.  He  was  present  at  the 
battle  in  which  his  father  was  killed,  and  though  then  only 
eighteen  years  old,  had  already  so  greatly  distinguished  himself 
that  Hasdrubal,  who  succeeded  Hamilcar,  placed  him  in  high 
command,  and  when  that  leader  died,  the  army,  with  one  con- 


sent, proclaimed  him  commander-in-chief,  and  their  act 


[221 


was  ratified  by  the  government  at  Carthage. 

He  was  a handsome  man,  of  commanding  appearance,  inured 
to  frost  and  heat,  indifferent  to  hunger  and  thirst.  Wrapped 
in  his  martial  cloak,  he  often  slept  on  the  bare  ground,  not  at 
stated  hours,  but  when  he  felt  tired.  Brought  up  in  the  camp, 
a soldier  trained  by  experience,  kind  and  humane  in  his  care  for 
the  meanest  of  his  warriors,  they  almost  idolized  him.  Natur- 
ally endowed  with  talents  of  the  highest  order,  he  improved 
them  by  cultivation ; he  spoke  several  languages  besides  his 
mother-tongue,  and  was  partial  to  the  company  of  learned 
Greeks ; his  perceptions  were  quick,  while  his  good  sense, 
courage,  indomitable  energy,  and  the  general  weight  of  his 
character,  marked  him  as  a leader  of  men. 

His  first  contact  with  Rome  was  at  the  siege  of  Saguntum,  a 
city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Spain.  It  lasted  eight  months,  ^ ^ ^ 
and  ended  in  the  taking  of  the  city  by  storm.  The 
brave  defenders  lighted  a fire,  and  preferred  death  in  the  flames 


76 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


to  life  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  The  fall  of  the  city  exasper- 
ated the  Romans,  who  sent  an  embassy  to  Carthage,  demand- 
ing the  surrender  of  Hannibal.  Pending  the  matter,  Fabius, 
one  of  the  embassy,  stepped  forth,  and  folding  up  his  toga,  ex- 
claimed, “ Which  will  you  have,  peace  or  war?  ” The  Cartha- 
ginians replied,  “ Which  you  will.”  u War,  then,”  said  Fa- 

bius  ; and  his  words  were  the  signal  of  the  Second 
2 1 8~ 201  ~ 

Punic  War,  which  lasted  seventeen  years. 

Late  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  Hannibal,  at  the 


218] 


head  of  90,000  foot,  12,000  horse,  and  37  elephants, 


crossed  the  Ebro,  and  rapidly  led  his  army  over  the 
Pyrenees.  He  had  reached  the  Rhone,  when  P.  Cornelius 
Scipio,  the  Roman  commander,  sailed  into  the  port  of  Mar- 
seilles. The  most  difficult  task  in  the  passage  of  that  river  was 
the  transportation  of  the  elephants  ; but  the  plan  of  enticing 
them  on  large  rafts  proved  successful,  and  though  some  leaped 
from  the  rafts,  all  got  safe  to  the  opposite  bank. 

After  some  dela}^,  Hannibal  began  early  in  October  his  fa- 
mous march  across  the  Alps.  His  road  was  that  over  the  Little 
St.  Bernard ; the  season  was  already  advanced,  snows  had  fal- 
len, and  in  some  places  the  road  was  impassable.  The  suffer- 
ings of  his  army  from  hunger  and  cold  were  aggravated  by  the 
enmity  of  the  mountaineers,  who  hurletf'down  fragments  of 
rock ; the  elephants  and  horses  were  terrified  and  refused  to 
move  ; the  carriages  rolled  back  and  went  over  ice-bound  preci- 
pices. At  last,  by  indomitable  perseverance,  he  reached  the 
summit  of  the  pass,  and  inspired  his  soldiers  with  new  courage 
by  showing  them  the  fertile  plains  of  Italy,  which  lay  smiling  at 
their  feet.  The  descent  was  very  difficult.  At  one  point,  a 
fearful  precipice,  several  thousand  feet  deep,  yawned  before 
them,  and  the  only  road  was  a narrow,  zigzag  path  which  crept 
along  the  rocks.  Hannibal  had  it  widened  to  the  required  di- 
mensions, and  the  army  descended  on  it  into  the  plains.  His 
losses  were  fearful ; the  march  lasted  fifteen  days,  the  ascent 
to  the  summit,  6,700  feet  high,  occupied  nine  days,  the  descent 


218-201.] 


HANNIBAL . 


77 


six  days  ; and  when  he  mustered  his  army  in  the  plains  of  the 
Po,  it  was  found  that  the  whole  of  his  available  strength  num- 
bered only  20,000  foot  and  6,000  horse.  With  so  insignificant  a 
force  he  ventured  to  attempt  the  overthrow  of  a power  that  a 
few  years  before  was  able  to  put  in  the  field  an  army  of  more 
than  700,000  men. 

After  a short  interval  of  rest,  Hannibal  broke  camp  and  de- 
feated the  Romans  in  a cavalry  fight  on  the  Ticinus  ; he  p218 
crossed  the  Po,  and  soon  after  engaged  the  enemy,  com- 
manded by  Scipio  and  Sempronius,  on  the  Trebia,  a fordable 
mountain  stream,  whose  banks  were  thickly  tangled  with  brush. 
Hannibal  placed  his  army  on  the  eastern  bank  in  ambush,  pro- 
voked the  Romans,  stationed  on  the  western  bank,  to  ford  the 
stream,  and  completely  defeated  them  with  heavy  loss.  This 
victory  made  him  master  of  Northern  Italy,  and  secured  to  him 
the  friendship  of  the  Gauls,  with  whom  he  was  able  to  recruit 
his  army. 

Early  next  spring  he  entered  into  the  low  lands  of  the  Arno. 
The  river  had  overflowed  its  banks  and  impeded  his  prog-  r- 
ress.  For  four  days  and  three  nights  the  soldiers  had 
to  wade  through  water  up  to  their  knees ; the  horses  lost  their 
hoofs,  the  beasts  of  burden  stuck  fast  in  the  marshes,  and 
Hannibal,  in  consequence  of  a violent  attack  of  ophthalmia, 
lost  the  sight  of  an  eye.  He  had  hardly  emerged  from  the 
marshes  and  gained  higher  ground,  when  apprized  of  the  ap- 
proach of  a Roman  army,  commanded  by  Flaminius,  who  had 
come  to  intercept  him,  he  marched  past  the  latter,  and  drew 
him  into  the  narrow  valley  of  the  lake  Trasy menus.  Hannibal 
held  the  heights,  and  the  Roman  army,  hemmed  in  between  the 
lake  and  the  mountains,  was  almost  destroyed ; thousands  fell 
by  the  sword,  thousands  more  perished  in  the  lake.  A body  of 
4,000  horse,  sent  to  the  support  of  Flaminius,  was  intercepted, 
and  all  either  slain  or  made  prisoners. 

Hannibal,  avoiding  Rome,  pursued  a southward  course  along 
the  Adriatic.  The  news  of  the  disastrous  event  of  Trasyme- 


78 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


nus  spread  alarm  through  the  city,  and  led  to  the  appointment 
as  dictator,  of  Quintus  Fabius,  a cautious,  thoughtful  man  who 
concluded  to  act  only  on  the  defensive.  When  Hannibal  came 
into  the  Falernian  plain,  and  laid  it  waste,  Fabius  kept  hanging 
on  his  rear,  but  never  lost  sight  of  him.  If  Hannibal  went  into 
camp,  Fabius  went  into  camp  ; if  he  began  to  march,  Fabius 
accompanied  him  on  the  heights.  This  hesitating  policy  gave 
umbrage  to  his  soldiers,  who  were  tired,  as  they  said,  of  mov- 
ing hither  and  thither  in  the  clouds  ; they  denounced  him  as  a 
coward,  and  nicknamed  him  “ Cunctator,”  that  is,  the  delayer. 
But  Fabius  let  them  talk,  and  pursued  his  course  so  skilfully 
that  he  shut  up  Hannibal  in  a narrow  valley,  north  of  Capua. 

Hannibal,  though  in  imminent  peril,  made  his  escape  by 
stratagem.  He  tied  faggots  to  the  horns  of  2,000  oxen,  at 
night  set  fire  to  the  faggots,  and  drove  the  infuriated  beasts 
towards  the  Romans,  who  imagined  that  the  enemy  was  escap- 
ing over  the  hills,  and  left  their  post.  Thus  Hannibal  got  out 
of  the  trap,  and  safe  to  Samnium. 

When  the  senate,  displeased  with  Fabius,  had  clothed  Minu- 
cius,  the  master  of  the  horse,  with  equal  power,  the  latter, 
eager  to  pursue  a different  policy,  fell  into  a snare  set  by  Hanni- 
bal, and  would  have  been  cut  up  but  for  the  timely  arrival  of 
Fabius,  who  safely  reconducted  the  army  to  the  heights.  “I 
was  afraid,”  said  Hannibal,  u that  the  cloud  on  the  mountains 
would  bring  on  a storm.” 

Aug.  2,  In  the  year  following  was  fought  at  Cannae  one  of  the 
216  most  terrible  battles  of  the  whole  war,  which  ended  in 
the  annihilation  of  a Roman  army  of  nearly  90,000  men,  with 
a loss  of  45,000  slain,  including  80  senators  and  3,000 
knights.  Accident,  or,  more  probably,  design,  favored  Hanni- 
bal ; it  is  said  that  he  caused  the  land  to  be  ploughed  up,  and 
that  a strong  south  wind  blew  the  clouds  of  limestone  dust  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Romans. 

The  news  of  this  overwhelming  disaster  unmanned  Rome, 
and  filled  the  citizens  with  frantic  despair ; they  sought  to  ap- 


216-212.] 


HANNIBAL. 


79 


pease  the  wrath  of  heaven  by  acts  of  humiliation,  and  the 
heathenish  expedient  of  sacrificing  human  victims.  Although 
Hannibal  committed  the  capital  error  of  not  following  up  his 
advantage  by  an  immediate  advance  upon  Rome,  the  decisive 
victory  of  Cannae  made  him  master  of  Lower  Italy,  which 
hailed  him  as  conqueror.  He  went  into  winter  quarters  at 
Capua,  a city  renowned  for  its  wealth  and  luxury,  and  his  resi- 
dence there  marks  the  turning  point  of  his  fortune,  and  the 
decline  of  the  military  glory  of  his  soldiers,  who,  according  to 
some,  were  corrupted  by  luxury  and  self-indulgence,  and  ac- 
cording to  others,  were  replaced  by  new  troops  unfitted  to  suc- 
ceed the  veterans  who  had  come  with  him  from  Africa  and 
gradually  died. 

Hannibal  stood  greatly  in  need  of  a seaport  in  order  to  open 
direct  communication  with  Carthage  ; he  tried  in  vain  to  pos- 
sess himself  of  Cumae  and  Naples,  and  at  Nola  sustained  a 
repulse  which  Roman  oratory  called  a defeat. 

The  fame  of  Hannibal  had  spread  beyond  the  confines  of 
Italy,  and  led  to  an  alliance  between  him  and  S}Tacuse,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  Roman  general  Marcellus  was  sent 
with  an  army  to  Sicily,  and  blockaded  Syracuse,  where 
two  of  Hannibars  ambassadors  had  been  placed  at  the 
head  of  affairs.  The  efforts  of  the  Romans  w^ere  frustrated  by 
the  genius  of  Archimedes,  who  counterworked  their  mines,  and 
contrived  the  erection  of  engines,  some  of  which  threw  huge 
pieces  of  timber  and  rock  into  the  Roman  vessels  with  fatal 
effect,  while  others  had  an  iron  grappling  apparatus  by  means 
of  which  a ship  was  lifted  up  out  of  the  water  and  dashed  to 
pieces  against  the  wall.  Of  these  Marcellus  exclaimed,  “ He 
uses  our  ships  for  buckets  to  draw  water.”  It  is  also  said  that 
he  set  fire  to  the  Roman  ships  by  means  of  burning 
mirrors.  In  the  third  year  of  the  siege  Syracuse  fell  by 
treachery.  Informed  by  some  deserters,  that  in  consequence 
of  a festival,  the  usual  precautions  against  surprise  had  been 
relaxed,  some  Romans  scaled  the  walls,  and  opened  the  gates 


80 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


208] 


207] 


from  within.  The  city  was  given  up  to  plunder,  and  most  of 
the  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword ; those  who  escaped  the  sword 
either  perished  with  hunger  or  were  sold  as  slaves.  Archi- 
medes was  among  the  slain.  He  sat  lost  in  mathematical 
figures,  which  he  had  traced  in  sand,  when  a Roman  entered. 
“Do  not  spoil  my  circles  ! ” exclaimed  Archimedes.  A thrust 
through  his  body  was  the  Roman’s  reply.  The  fall  of  Syracuse 
restored  Sicily  to  Roman  dominion. 

About  the  same  time  the  Romans  laid  siege  to  Padua,  and 
Hannibal,  in  order  to  withdraw  them,  marched  against  Rome, 
but  was  too  weak  to  prevent  the  capture  of  the  former  city,  or 
to  inflict  more  than  fright  upon  the  latter.  He  ravaged,  with- 
out opposition,  the  country  up  to  the  very  walls  of  Rome, 
and  maintained  himself  in  Southern  Italy,  where  in  the 
battle  of  Venusia  he  defeated  the  Romans.  In  the  year  fol- 
lowing, Hasdrubal,  the  brother  of  Hannibal,  arrived  with 
Carthaginian  auxiliaries,  but  before  effecting  a junction 
with  him,  was  overtaken  by  the  Romans  on  the  bank  of  the 
Metaurus,  and  in  a decisive  battle  lost  not  only  his  army  and 
camp,  but  his  life.  He  died  like  a brave  man,  but  Nero,  the 
Roman  commander,  behaved  like  a savage  brute.  He  had  his 
head  cut  off,  and,  hastening  towards  the  camp  of  Hannibal, 
flung  it  into  it.  That  general  was  horrified  at  the  terrible 
token,  in  which  he  read,  with  sad  foreboding,  the  destiny  of 
Carthage.  Sullenly  he  retired  into  the  southwestern  parts  of 
Italy,  in  whose  mountain  fastnesses  he  maintained  his  ground 
for  nearly  four  years  longer. 

The  war  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  waged  on  the  Spanish 
peninsula,  had  ended  in  the  entire  expulsion  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians. Scipio,  the  victorious  general,  went  as  proconsul, 
first  to  Sicily,  then  to  Africa,  and  established  his 
camp  north  of  Carthage.  After  fifteen  years’  absence  in  the 
enen^’s  country,  during  which  he  had  laid  it  waste  from  one 
extremity  to  the  other,  and  maintained  his  superiority  in  the 
field,  Hannibal  was  summoned  to  the  defence  of  the  threatened 


204] 


208-195.] 


HANNIBAL . 


81 


city.  He  obeyed,  loth  to  leave  Italy,  and  exclaimed  that  Car- 
thage, through  envy  and  ingratitude,  and  not  the  Romans,  had 
conquered  him. 

The  opposing  armies  lay  in  the  plain  of  Zama  (Algiers) . 
Convinced  that  the  impending  battle  must  decide  the  fate  of 
Carthage,  Hannibal  proposed  an  interview  with  Scipio,  which 
is  said  to  have  taken  place.  Hannibal  urged  peace,  and 
offered  the  cession  of  Spain  and  all  the  Mediterranean  posses- 
sions. But  Scipio  refused  the  terms,  saying  : “ Had  you  made 
these  overtures  before  I sailed  hither,  and  carried  victory  to 
* the  gates  of  Carthage,  we  should  have  accepted  them.  But 
now  it  is  too  late.  Who  can  trust  Carthage?  Let  the  sword 
decide.” 

In  the  battle  of  Zama,  which  was  fought  with  great  gallantry 
and  skill  on  both  sides,  the  superior  strength  of  Scipio  carried 
the  day  and  decided  the  war.  The  Carthaginians  lost  20,000 
in  slain,  and  as  many  prisoners.  Hannibal  himself  fled  with  a 
few  horsemen  to  Iladrumetum,  and  all  hopes  of  successful 
resistance  being  now  at  an  end,  Carthage  had  to  submit  to  a 
peace  of  which  these  were  the  terms  : 4 4 Carthage  was  to  retain 
her  possessions  in  Africa,  but  agreed  to  give  100  hostages,  sur- 
render all  ships  of  war  except  10,  all  her  elephants,  pay  an 
annnal  subsidy  of  200  talents  for  50  }Tears,  and  wage  no  more 
wars  without  the  consent  of  Rome.”  This  treaty  was  formally 


ratified  at  Rome  in  the  following  year,  and  thus  ended 


[201 


the  Second  Punic  War. 

Scipio  returned  to  Rome  in  triumph,  and  was  accorded  the 
surname  Africanus,  that  is,  the  African. 

Hannibal  was  honorably  received  at  Carthage,  and  used  his 
best  endeavors  to  raise  her  from  her  fall  both  by  administrative 
reforms  and  alliances  with  the  enemies  of  Rome.  Rome  de- 
manded his  surrender,  and  he  fled  to  Antiochus  III.,  king  of 
Syria,  who  was  on  the  eve  of  war  with  Rome.  Antiochus,  r 
instead  of  taking  the  counsel  of  Hannibal,  pursued  his 
own  course,  and  was  defeated  at  Magnesia  by  Scipio  Asiaticus, 


82 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


the  brother  of  Africanus.  Again  Rome  made  the  surrender  of 
Hannibal  one  of  the  conditions  on  which  peace  was  granted  to 
Antiochus.  Hannibal,  foreseeing  his  danger,  made  his  escape, 
and  finally  took  up  his  abode  with  Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia. 

But  even  there  he  was  not  allowed  to  live  in  peace,  for  the 
Romans  required  Flaminius  to  demand  his  surrender.  The 
king  was  compelled  to  respect  the  summons,  and  sent  troops  to 
arrest  the  aged  general,  who,  finding  that  all  approaches  were 
beset,  and  escape  impossible,  to  avoid  falling  alive  into  the 
hands  of  his  enemies,  took  poison,  which,  in  expectation  of 
such  a juncture,  he  carried  in  the  hollow  of  his  signet-ring, 
saying,  “I  will  rid  the  Romans  of  their  constant  care,  as  they 
cannot  wait  for  the  death  of  an  old  man.”  Thus  died  the 
great  Hannibal,  unquestionably  one  of  the  ablest  generals  the 
world  has  seen,  in  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  his  life. 

^ n In  the  same  year  died  Scipio,  his  conqueror,  52  years 
old,  chagrined  at  the  ingratitude  and  injustice  of  his  fel- 
low-citizens, who  had  entertained  the  unfounded  charge  brought 
against  him  of  having  received  a bribe  from  Antiochus,  king 
of  Syria. 


REFERENCES. 


Plutarch,  “ Hannibal  ” ; Arnold,  “ History  of  Rome,”  vol.  III. ; 
Niebuhr,  “ Lectures  *on  Roman  History,”  vol.  I.  Lect.  8-16 ; Smith, 
“ Dictionary,”  etc.,  under  “ Hannibal.” 

The  French  work  of  Vaudoncourt,  “ History  of  the  Italian  Cam- 
paigns of  Hannibal,”  3 vols.,  Milan,  1812,  contains'  an  excellent 
military  commentary  on  the  operations  of  Hannibal. 


149-146.]  SCIPIO  AFRICANUS  JUNIOR . 


83 


SCIPIO  AFRICANUS  JUNIOR. 

After  the  lapse  of  half  a century  the  commercial  enterprise 
of  Carthage  had  revived  her  prosperity,  and  made  her  an 
object  of  envy  to  the  Romans.  The  senate  regarded  her  with 
suspicion  and  ill-concealed  hostility.  Her  most  inveterate 
enemy  was  the  stern  Cato,  who,  early  in  life,  had  served  under 
Fabius,  and  inherited  from  those  who  had  fought  the  Carthagin- 
ians in  Italy  invincible  hatred  for  Carthage  and  whatever 
belonged  to  it.  Thus  far  she  had  faithfully  kept  all  the  con- 
ditions of  the  treaty,  and  there  was  no  pretext  for  war. 

Masinissa,  king  of  Numidia,  a willing  tool  of  the  Romans, 
and  a thorn  in  the  side  of  Carthage,  advanced  an  unjust  claim 
to  the  oldest  Phoenician  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
which  doubtless  belonged  to  Carthage.  As  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  prohibited  her  from  carrying  on  any  war  without  the 
sanction  of  Rome,  Carthage  referred  the  claim  to  the  Roman 
senate.  A commission  of  ten  deputies,  of  whom  Cato  was  one, 
was  sent  to  Africa,  and  their  arbitration,  though  accepted  by 
Masinissa,  was  rejected  at  Carthage.  Cato,  on  his  return, 
harangued  the  senate  upon  the  danger  of  the  growing  power 
of  Carthage,  of  the  strength  of  her  preparation  for  war,  and 
of  her  nearness.  Thrusting  his  hand  into  his  toga,  he  pro- 
duced a bunch  of  early  ripe  figs,  and  in  answer  to  those  who 
praised  their  freshness  and  beauty,  said,  u These  figs  were 
gathered  three  days  ago  at  Carthage  : so  close  is  the  enemy  to 
our  walls.”  Most  of  the  senators  favored  the  immediate  de- 
spatch of  an  army,  but  no  formal  resolution  was  adopted. 
From  that  time  forth  Cato  never  spoke  in  the  senate,  no  matter 
on  what  subject,  without  the  concluding  words,  “ For  the  rest, 
I vote  that  Cartilage  be  destroyed.” 


84 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


149-146] 


The  Carthaginians,  convinced  that  Rome  would  not  aid  them, 
in  self-defence  took  up  arms  against  Masinissa,  but  were  un- 
successful. The  Romans,  in  search  of  a pretext  for  war, 
thereupon  declared  that  Carthage  had  broken  the  peace,  and 
ordered  a powerful  army  to  be  sent  to  Sicily.  The  consuls  in 
command  had  instructions  to  negotiate  for  peace  with  the  Car- 
thaginian delegates,  who  had  repaired  to  that  island. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  Third  Punic  War. 

The  consuls  demanded  that  300  children  of  the  best  families 
should  be  surrendered  as  hostages.  The  Carthaginians  com- 
plied with  this  terrible  condition.  The  hostages  were  fettered, 
and,  amidst  the  heart-rending  sorrow  of  their  disconsolate  par- 
ents, sent  off  to  Sicily.  To  the  inquiry  of  the  Carthaginian 
delegates,  if  there  were  any  other  conditions,  the  Romans  gave 
the  haughty  reply,  u Inquire  again  after  we  have  landed  in 
Africa.” 

The  consular  armies  sailed  for  Africa  and  landed  at  Utica. 
The  ambassadors  of  Carthage  then  were  told  that  Rome  required 
them  to  surrender  their  ships.  They  were  given  up,  and  burned 
in  the  presence  of  the  people.  After  the  ships  had  been  de- 
stroyed, the  Romans  demanded  the  surrender  of  their  arms  and 
implements  of  war,  saying,  u Under  the  protection  of  Rome 
you  have  no  use  for  them.”  Humiliated,  Carthage  accepted 
also  this  condition,  and  gave  up  200,000  stand  of  arms  and 
3,000  catapults  ; mournful  indeed  must  have  been  the  feelings 
with  which  the  senators,  the  nobles,  and  all  the  people  saw  their 
last  and  only  means  of  defence  disappear  in  the  Roman  camp. 
Disarmed,  and  apparently  at  the  mercy  of  their  implacable  foe, 
who  might  have  been  satisfied  with  the  tokens  of  their  submis- 


sion, the  Carthaginians  were  now  yet  further  required  to  leave 
their  homes  and  city,  for  Carthage  was  to  be  razed  to  the 
ground,  and  if  they  built  a new  city,  it  must  be  ten  miles  awa}^ 
from  the  coast. 

Then  the  poor  people  gave  vent  to  their  smothered  indigna- 
tion in  loud  discontent.  They  invoked  the  vengeance  of  heaven 


149-146.]  SCIPIO  AFRICANUS  JUNIOR . 


85 


upon  their  cruel  oppressors,  and  swore  that  they  would  not  sur- 
vive the  destruction  of  their  city,  but  defend  it  to  the  last  drop 
of  their  blood.  Instantly  they  rushed  to  the  gates,  closed  and 
fortified  them ; they  shut  the  harbor  by  drawing  a huge  chain 
across  its  entrance.  All  Italians  in  the  city  were  put  to  death. 
The}'  had  no  ships,  and  no  arms,  yet  they  despaired  not.  They 
had  skill  and  energy ; they  loved  their  city  and  hated  the 
Romans.  They  unroofed  their  houses  to  provide  timber  for 
the  ships  they  resolved  to  build ; the  whole  city  became  a work- 
shop, and  no  sacrifice  was  deemed  too  great  for  the  heroic 
patriotism  which  animated  the  people.  The  women  brought  their 
jewels  of  silver  and  gold  to  be  molten  and  turned  into  arrow- 
heads, and  many  cut  off  their  long  hair  to  be  converted  into 
bowstrings  and  ropes  for  the  catapults.  They  turned  out  daily 
500  spears,  300  swords,  140  shields,  and  1,000  missiles  for 
catapults,  and  built  in  the  space  of  two  months  120  decked 
vessels.  Hasdrubal,  the  general  who  had  been  unsuccessful 
against  Masinissa,  undertook  the  defence  of  the  city,  which 
bravely  defied  the  Romans  for  two  entire  years. 

In  the  third  year,  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  JEmilianus,  the 
son  of  iEmilius  Paulus,  who  had  been  adopted  by  the  r 
son  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  elder,  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  Roman  army.  He  began  operations  by  surrounding  the 
city,  and  blockading  the  port,  and  thus  cut  off  all  supplies  by  sea 
and  land.  A fortified  camp  thrown  up  around  the  city,  and  a 
long  dam  or  mole,  extending  from  a place  called  the  Taenia  to 
the  isthmus,  made  one  unbroken  line,  within  which  lay  the 
devoted  city.  But  even  this  could  not  arrest  the  indomitable 
energy  of  the  brave  Carthaginians.  No  sooner  had  Scipio  con- 
structed his  dam  than  they  cut  a new  channel  into  the  ocean, 
and  put  out  to  sea  with  the  fleet  which  they  had  built.  r 
That  fleet  unfortunately  was  destroyed,  and  the  fate  of 
the  city  was  sealed  in  the  ensuing  year,  when  famine  and  disease 
had  done  their  deadly  work.  The  sufferings  and  horrors  of  the 
siege  were  still  aggravated  by  the  incapacity  of  the  selfish  and 
tyrannical  Hasdrubal. 


86 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


/„ 


Not  until  the  extremity  of  famine  had  weakened  the  hapless 
Carthaginians,  did  Scipio  order  the  assault.  The  city  stood  on 
a peninsula,  and  was  defended  by  a treble  wall  across  the  isth- 
mus. This  wall  the  Romans  scaled  at  night,  and  carried  fire  and 
sword  into  the  city.  The  Carthaginians  fought  with  the  hero- 
ism of  despair ; for  six  days  the  work  of  carnage  was  going  on 
in  the  port,  in  the  streets,  and  in  the  houses.  The  Romans 
drove  the  people  from  stoiy  to  story,  and  at  last  transferred  the 
butchery  from  the  streets  to  the  roofs. 

The  streets  were  filled  with  the  slain,  and  the  famished  Car- 
thaginians, still  fighting,  fed  upon  their  bodies.  The  city  was 
set  on  fire,  and  the  flames  raged  uninterruptedly  for  seventeen 
days.  Thousands  of  those  who  had  escaped  death  by  famine, 
disease,  or  the  sword,  took  their  own  lives  by  rushing  into  the 
flames. 

Then  proclamation  was  made,  promising  life  to  all  who  had 
sought  refuge  in  the  citadel  (except  the  Roman  deserters) , if 
they  would  surrender,  and  50,000,  the  sole  remnant  of  a popu- 
lation of  700,000,  came  forth  to  exchange  death  for  slavery. 
The  terrible  spectacle  of  the  misery  of  Carthage  is  said  to  have 
moved  Scipio  to  tears,  as  he  sat  on  a commanding  height,  star- 
ing at  the  terrors  enacting  at  his  feet.  By  him  stood  Polybius, 
the  historian,  to  whom  he  cited  the  words  of  Homer : — 

“ The  day  will  come  when  holy  Troy  must  fall.”  II.  iv.  164. 

When  the  flames  had  subsided,  the  remaining  buildings  and 
ruins  were  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  plough  passed  over  the 
site  where  for  seven  centuries  had  stood  in  the  splendor  of  a mag- 
nificence superior  to  that  of  Rome,  one  of  the  queen  cities  of  the 
ancient  world.  Carthage  was  a howling  wilderness ; her  terri- 
tory became  a Roman  colony,  which  was  called  Africa ; the 
conqueror,  or  destroyer,  of  Carthage  was  accorded  a splendid 
triumph,  and  surnamed,  not  only  by  the  right  of  inheritance, 
but  in  virtue  of  his  exploits,  Scipio  Africanus. 

In  the  same  year,  Mummius,  another  Roman  soldier,  accom- 


149-146.]  SCIPIO  AFRICANUS  JUNIOR . 


87 


plished  at  Corinth  what  Scipio  had  done  at  Carthage.  Her 
citizens  were  massacred,  her  women  and  children  sold  into 
slavey.  All  her  treasures  of  art  were  removed,  the  torch  was 
applied,  and  Corinth  was  razed  to  the  ground ; while  Greece, 
from  that  time  forth,  became  known  as  a Roman  province, 
called  Achaia. 

REFERENCES. 

See  the  works  named  at  the  end  of  “ Duilius  and  Regnlus  ” and 
“Hannibal”;  Smith,  “Dictionary,”  etc.,  under  “Scipio,”  No.  21. 
Also,  Plutarch,  “ Cato.” 


88 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


JULIUS  C/ESAR. 

Julius  Gesak,  born  July  12,  b.c.  100,  was  the  son  of  Julius 
Caesar,  the  praetor,  and  Aurelia,  an  excellent  and  devoted 
mother.  His  father  died  when  he  was  sixteen  years  old,  and 
his  mother  is  credited  with  having  directed  his  education,  and 
fostered  the  pleasant  address  and  winning  manners  which  dis- 
tinguished him  throughout  his  career.  He  was  inured  to  hard- 
ship, and  loved  simplicity  and  moderation.  Like  all  well  edu- 
cated young  Romans,  he  spoke  Latin  and  Greek  with  equal 
facility,  and  it  is  a well-known  fact  that  the  last  words  he 
uttered  were  spoken  in  Greek. 

Though  allied  by  his  marriage  with  Cornelia,  the  daughter  of 
Cinna,  to  the  Marian  party,  Caesar  had  the  good  fortune  of 
escaping  death  during  the  Sullan  persecutions.  In  those  days 
of  civil  commotion,  passion  ran  high  ; the  friend  of  Sulla  must 
needs  be  the  enemy  of  Marius,  and  the  friend  of  Marius  the 
enemy  of  Sulla.  The  latter  commanded  Caesar  to  divorce 
Cornelia,  as  being  the  daughter  of  a known  enemy,  but  the 
youthful  husband  resolutely  refused.  By  his  refusal  he  lost  his 
position,  his  wife’s  dowry,  and  the  right  of  inheritance,  and  had  to 
flee  for  his  life.  Powerful  friends  interceded  on  his  behalf,  and 
Sulla  at  last  pardoned  him,  exclaiming,  “Well,  have  your  own 
way,  but  remember  that  many  a Marius  slumbers  in  that  lad.” 

Caesar  went  to  Asia,  and  served  his  first  campaign 
under  Thermus,  who  employed  him  on  a mission  to  Nico- 
medes  III.,  to  fetch  his  fleet,  and  on  his  return,  rewarded 

1 him  with  a civic  crown  for  saving  the  life  of  a fellow- 
soldier  in  the  siege  of  Mytilene.  During  his  stay  in 
Asia,  he  visited  Rhodes  to  perfect  himself  in  the  study  of 


Fisk  & See.N,  f 


30  40  « 

t y 

THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE 

AT  ITS  GREATEST  EXTENT 

The  Roman  Dominions  at  the  Death  of  CaesarP" 

The  Empire  under  Trajan | 


81-65.] 


JULIUS  CMSAR. 


89 


oratory,  under  Apollonius  Molo,  who  was  also  one  of  Cicero’s 
teachers. 

On  the  voyage  he  had  the  misfortune  to  be  captured  by 
pirates  off  Miletus,  who  demanded  twenty  talents  for  his  ransom. 
He  laughed  at  their  moderate  demand,  and  promised  them  fifty, 
for  which  he  sent  some  of  his  friends  to  the  neighboring  cities 
of  Asia,  and,  pending  their  return,  remained  about  forty  days 
on  board  the  pirate.  Utterly  fearless,  he  made  himself  thor- 
oughly at  home  with  them,  and  even  secured  their  respect  and 
obedience.  When  he  wanted  to  sleep,  he  begged  them  keep 
silence ; he  wrote  poems  and  orations,  which  he  rehearsed  to 
them,  and  when  they  expressed  no  admiration,  he  called  them 
dunces  and  barbarians.  Sometimes  he  threatened  to  crucify 
them ; they  treated  his  menace  as  a jest,  but  he  was  in  sober 
earnest ; for  after  the  ransom  had  been  paid,  and  he  had  re- 
gained his  liberty,  he  manned  some  Milesian  vessels,  over- 
powered the  pirates,  and  true  to  his  threat,  crucified  them. 

On  his  return  to  Rome,  all  his  efforts  were  directed  to  make 
himself  popular  by  affable  manners  and  unbounded  liberality. 
For  that  purpose  he  not  only  spent  all  he  had,  but  ran  into 
debt,  and  the  usurious  money-lenders  let  him  have  all  he  wanted, 
convinced  that  the  emoluments  of  public  offices  within  his  reach 
afforded  ample  security  for  their  advances.  At  the  age  of  32 
he  was  chosen  qucestor , and  before  he  set  out  for  Spain  was 
called  upon  to  mourn  the  loss  of  his  aunt  Julia,  the  widow  of 
Marius,  and  of  his  own  wife  Cornelia,  the  daughter  of  Cinna. 

After  a short  absence  in  Spain,  Caesar  returned  to  Rome, 
and  married  Pompeia,  a relative  of  Pompey ; in  the  r 

same  year  he  was  chosen  a superintendent  of  the  Appian  L 

Way,  and  increased  his  popularffy7  by  spending  upon  its  repairs 
a large  sum  of  his  own  money.  Two  years  later  he  was  r 
chosen  cedile , and  as  such,  charged  with  the  supervision  L 
of  the  public  buildings  and  the  general  direction  of  the  public 
games.  The  splendor  of  his  tenure  of  this  office,  shared  by 
Bibulus,  his  colleague,  outshone  that  of  all  his  predecessors  ; on 


90 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


one  occasion  he  produced  320  pair  of  gladiators  in  silver  armor, 
and  by  means  of  this  and  similar  displays,  won  the  hearts  of 
the  people.  Though  Bibulus  bore  half  the  expense,  Caesar 
got  credit  for  the  whole,  and  the  former  remarked  that  it  re- 
minded him  of  the  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  which,  though 
consecrated  to  both,  was  never  spoken  of  otherwise  than  that 
of  Castor. 

Conscious  of  his  great  popularity,  the  ambitious  Caesar  pre- 
sented himself  as  candidate  for  the  office  of  Pontifex  Maximus , 
which  until  then  had  been  held  only  by  men  of  advanced  years. 
His  mother  advised  him  not  to  run  for  that  office,  but  in  vain ; 
and,  as  he  left  her  on  the  day  of  election,  said  to  her,  u You 

1 will  see  me,  dear  mother,  this  day  either  chief  pontiff 
or  an  exile.”  He  was  elected. 

The  enormous  expense  connected  with  his  public  life  had 
raised  his  debts  to  almost  fabulous  dimensions,  and  he  is  re- 
ported to  have  told  a friend  that  he  wanted  about  15  millions 
in  order  to  be  able  to  say  that  he  had  nothing.  Appointed  pro- 
consul  of  Spain,  his  creditors  protested  against  his  departure; 
, -j  but  Crassus,  the  richest  man  in  Pome,  went  security  for 
him,  and  he  set  out  for  his  province. 

An  anecdote  belonging  to  that  journey  marks  the  man. 
Passing  a small  village  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  some  of  his 
officers  having  jestingly  asked  him,  if  he  believed  that  even 
there  men  were  ambitious  of  office,  he  replied  quite  seriously, 
“ I assure  }^ou,  I had  rather  be  the  first  man  here  than  second 
at  Rome.”  It  is  interesting  and  instructive  to  record,  that 
Napoleon  III.,  in  his  History  of  Caesar,1  approves  this  senti- 
ment. The  story  also  runs  that  during  his  stay  in  Spain  Caesar 
read  the  History  of  Alexander,  and  wept  over  it,  and  in  answer 
to  the  astonished  inquiries  of  his  friends,  remarked,  “What? 
Have  I not  cause  for  concern  ? For  when  Alexander  was  as  old 
as  I,  he  had  conquered  the  world,  and  I have  done  nothing.” 


1 “Histoire  de  Jules  Cesar/’  vol.  I.  p.  343.  New  York,  1865. 


63-49.] 


JULIUS  CAESAR. 


91 


[60 


Under  the  dominance  of  such  thoughts  he  speedily  effected 
the  complete  subjugation  of  the  province,  and  distinguished 
himself  both  as  a general  and  a governor.  He  enriched  him- 
self  and  the  army,  who  saluted  him  as  Imperator,  while  the 
Senate  honored  him  with  a public  thanksgiving. 

The  plunder  not  only  enabled  him  to  pay  his  debts,  but  to 
maintain  his  popularity  by  the  distribution  of  grain  and 
money. 

Through  the  instrumental^}7  of  Caesar  was  brought  about  the 
reconciliation  of  Pompey  and  Crassus,  who,  for  many  years, 
had  been  deadly  enemies,  and  an  agreement  whereby  the  three 
pledged  themselves  to  support  one  another,  and  to  divide 
the  power  among  themselves.  This  formidable  coalition  of 
wealth,  power,  and  talent,  though  at  the  time  of  its  formation 
a profound  secret  and  a private  agreement,  soon  made  itself 
felt,  and  was  called  the  First  Triumvirate , that  is,  46  The 
league  of  the  three  men.” 

In  the  year  following,  Caesar  and  Bibulus  were  chosen  consuls, 
but  the  latter  was  a mere  figure-head,  and  Caesar,  backed  j- 
by  Pompey  and  Crassus,  was  the  real  ruler.  The  popu- 
lar  wit  of  the  Romans  expressed  the  fact  by  saying  that  the 
consuls  for  that  year  were  Julius  and  Caesar. 

Caesar,  foreseeing  that  the  sword  must  be  the  ultimate  arbiter 
of  the  rival  claims  of  the  powerful  parties  at  Rome,  and  that 
an  army  attached  to  him  by  victories  and  rewards  was  the 
surest  means  for  the  furtherance  of  his  ambitious  designs, 
secured  the  appointment  of  the  government  of  Cisalpine  Gaul 
and  Illyricum  with  three  legions  for  five  years,  to  which  was 
added  that  of  Transalpine  Gaul  with  another  legion  for  the  same 
number  of  years.  At  the  expiration  of  the  five  years,  r 
his  command  was  extended  for  five  years  more.  In  L 
nine  eventful  years  he  completely  subdued  Transalpine  Gaul ; 
twice  he  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  twice  invaded  Britain,  which 
until  then  had  been  unknown  to  the  Romans. 

During  the  first  years  of  his  residence  in  Gaul,  Pompey  and 


92 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


56] 


Crassus  observed  the  terms  of  their  agreement.  In  conse- 
quence of  a misunderstanding  between  the  latter,  Caesar 
arranged  a meeting  at  Luca,  in  which  they  were  recon- 
ciled to  one  another,  and  an  understanding  was  reached  accord- 
ing to  which  Crassus  should  have  the  province  of  Syria,  Pompey 
the  two  Spains,  and  Caesar  obtain  the  prolongation  of  his  gov- 
ernment for  five  years  more,  already  referred  to.  Crassus 
went  to  Syria  and  fell  a victim  to  the  insatiable  avarice  which 
had  led  him  to  undertake  an  unjust  and  aggressive  campaign 
against  the  Partliians.  His  army  was  defeated,  and  he  con- 
sented to  an  interview  with  the  Parthian  general.  Crassus  sus- 
pected treachery,  and  refused  to  mount  the  horse  which  had  been 

1 brought  for  his  use.  In  the  confusion  he  was  slain  by 
an  unknown  hand.  His  head  was  cut  off  and  taken  to 
king  Orodes,  who  filled  it  with  melted  gold,  exclaiming, 
“ Take  thy  fill  of  that  which  in  life  thou  so  greedily  didst  long 
for.” 

As  for  Pompey,  he  left  the  administration  of  Spain  in  the 
hands  of  his  deputies,  and  ruled  at  Pome  with  the  unlimited 
powers  of  a despot.  The  friendly  relations  between  Caesar  and 
himself  began  to  be  disturbed,  and  the  breach  was  wi- 
dened by  the  death  of  Julia,  Caesar’s  daughter,  who  had 
been  married  to  Pompey.  The  vast  influence  of  Caesar,  aug- 

1 mented  by  his  military  exploits,  filled  Pompey  with  envy, 
and  stirred  him  up  to  undisguised  acts  of  hostility,  which 
culminated  in  the  decree  of  the  Senate  requiring  Caesar  to 
disband  his  army. 

Caesar  was  on  the  southern  confines  of  his  province  when  he 
received  the  mandate  of  the  Senate.  He  hesitated  as  to  which 
course  to  pursue : to  obey  meant  to  ruin  himself ; to  disobey 
meant  war  with  Pompey.  On  the  bank  of  the  Rubicon  he 
had  to  decide  the  matter.  On  a sudden  impulse  he  made  his 
choice,  exclaiming,  u The  die  is  cast ! ” and  crossed  the  river. 

It  was  a momentous  decision,  which  involved  Rome  in  a long 
and  sanguinary  civil  war.  The  power  of  Pompey  seemed  to  be 


56-48.] 


JULIUS  CJESAR. 


93 


broken  in  a moment.  The  news  of  Caesar’s  approach  caused 
him  and  the  leaders  of  the  aristocratic  party  to  fly  in  hot  haste 
from  Rome  to  Padua,  from  Padua  to  Brundusium ; there  he 
took  sail  and  crossed  over  to  D}Trhachium. 

The  march  of  Caesar  was  like  a triumphal  progress,  for  city 
after  cityr  opened  its  gates  to  him.  Unable  for  want  of  ships  to 
pursue  Pompey  by  sea,  Caesar  returned  as  conqueror  of  Italy  to 
Rome,  and  after  a short  delay  set  out  for  Spain,  the  province 
of  Pompey.  On  the  way,  Massilia  refused  to  submit  to  him ; 
he  ordered  his  lieutenants  to  besiege  it,  and  marched  on  to 
Spain,  where  Pompey  had  seven  legions.  After  great  difficulties 
and  reverses,  he  accomplished  their  entire  reduction  in  only  40 
days,  and  compelled  Massilia  to  receive  him.  His  plan  was,  as 
he  said  before  setting  out  for  Spain,  to  defeat  first  an  army 
without  a general,  and  then  attend  to  a general  without  an 
army.  He  accordingly  returned  to  Rome  in  the  capacitj^  of 
dictator,  to  which  office  the  praetor  M.  Lepidus  had  appointed 
him,  in  virtue  of  a law  passed  for  the  purpose.  He  held  that 
office  for  only  eleven  da}Ts,  during  which  he  and  Servilius  Isau- 
ricus  were  elected  consuls  for  the  ensuing  year,  and  some  im- 
portant laws  were  passed. 

Early  in  the  next  year  he  sailed  with  an  army  of  seven  legions 
across  the  Adriatic,  to  give  battle  to  Pompey,  who  had  collected 
a force  at  least  twice  as  large  to  oppose  him.  The  deci-  aug.  9, 
sive  battle  was  fought  on  the  plains  of  Pharsalus  or  48 
Pharsalia,  in  Thessaly,  and  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  Pompey. 

Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  in  hope  of  finding  an  asylum  at  the 
court  of  Ptolemy,  whose  father  he  had  aided  in  regaining  his 
throne.  The  king,  being  a minor,  the  government  was  in  the 
hand  of  three  officials,  who,  dreading  the  wrath  of  Caesar,  if 
they  allowed  Pompey  to  land,  and  that  of  Pompey,  if  they 
refused,  deemed  it  wisest  to  do  neither,  and  concluded  to  put 
him  to  death.  A boat  was  sent  out  to  meet  him  ; his  wife,  his 
son,  and  friends  watched  him  from  the  ship,  to  see  what  recep- 
tion he  might  receive  from  the  king,  who,  with  his  troops,  stood 


94 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


on  the  edge  of  the  sea ; just  as  the  boat  had  reached  the  shore, 
and  Pompey  was  rising  from  his  seat,  a centurion  stabbed  him 
in  the  back ; the  rest  drew  their  swords,  and  Pompey,  drawing 
his  toga  over  his  face,  without  uttering  a word  calmly  submitted 
to  his  fate.  His  head  was  cut  off  and  taken  to  Caesar,  who 
arrived  soon  afterwards ; he  turned  from  the  sight,  wept  sore 
at  the  dreadful  fate  of  his  friend  and  son-in-law,  and  com- 
manded the  murderers  to  be  put  to  death.  Philippus,  the 
freedman  of  Pompey,  laid  the  dishonored  body  to  rest  in  a 
foreign  grave. 

Caesar  spent  a year  in  Egypt,  and  supported  the  beautiful 
Cleopatra  in  her  claims  to  the  joint  occupation  of  the  throne. 
Ptolemy  was  drowned  in  the  Nile,  and  a younger  brother  took 
his  place. 

An  insurrection  in  Pontus,  led  by  Pharnaces,  the  son  of 
Mithridates,  induced  Caesar  to  repair  thither,  and  to  defeat  him 
in  a single  battle.  His  despatch  on  the  engagement  is 
the  shortest  on  record  ; it  read  thus  : u I came,  I saw,  I 
conquered.” 

Upon  his  return  to  Home,  Caesar  was  made  dictator  for  the 
third  time.  Tidings  of  a large  army  collected  by  the  partisans 
of  Pompey  at  Utica  in  North  Africa,  caused  him  without 
delay  to  cross  into  that  country,  and  to  rout  the  enemy 
in  the  battle  of  Thapsus. 

Caesar,  being  now  the  undisputed  master  of  the  Roman  world, 
returned  to  Rome.  Before  he  arrived,  a public  thanksgiving  of 
forty  days  was  decreed  in  his  honor,  and  he  was  proclaimed  dic- 
tator for  ten  years.  He  celebrated  in  four  magnificent  triumphs 
his  victories  in  Gaul,  Egypt,  Pontus,  and  Africa.  The  triumphs 
were  followed  by  largesses  in  corn,  oil,  and  money  to  the  people, 
and  in  money  and  lands  to  the  soldiers.  Rich  banquets,  and 
entertainments  in  the  Circus  and  Amphitheatre,  concluded  the 
festivities. 

Uniting  in  his  person  all  the  attributes  of  supreme  authority, 
Caesar  now  directed  his  energies  to  the  correction  of  evils  which 


47-45.] 


JULIUS  CAESAR. 


95 


had  crept  into  the  state,  and  to  the  enactments  of  salutary  and 
necessary  laws.  One  of  his  first  and  most  noble  acts  was  the 
proclamation  of  a general  amnesty.  The  correction  of  the 
calendar  was  one  of  the  most  important  reforms  he  introduced. 
Before  the  adoption  of  his  measure,  the  civil  year  was  ninety 
days  in  advance  of  the  solar  year.  He  therefore  made  the  year 
b.c.  46  to  consist  of  445  days,  called  for  that  reason  The  Year 
of  Confusion,  and  provided  that  the  civil  year  should  consist  of 
365  days  with  the  intercalation  of  one  day  every  four  years. 
This  calendar  is  called  after  him  the  Julian I He  also  tried  to 
check  the  widespread  extravagance  of  the  period  by  severe 
sumptuary  laws,  and  introduced  and  planned  numerous  measures 
for  the  benefit  of  the  vast  Roman  empire. 

In  the  midst  of  these  peaceful  pursuits,  Caesar,  apprized  of 
the  formidable  insurrection  instigated  by  the  sons  of  Pompev 
in  Spain,  repaired  to  that  province,  and  in  the  sanguin- 
ary  battle  of  Munda  defeated  their  army. 

He  returned  to  Rome  in  September,  and  contrary  to  usage 
entered  the  city  in  triumph,  although  his  victory  had  been  gained 
over  Roman  citizens.  The  Senate  received  him  with  tokens  of 
servile  flattery.  In  his  absence  they  had  voted  a public  thanks- 
giving of  50  days,  and  now  lavished  upon  him  the  greatest 
honors  they  could  devise.  He  was  hailed  “ the  father  of  his 
country,”  and  saluted  u Imperator  ” ; he  was  to  wear  the  tri- 
umphal robe  on  all  public  occasions ; he  was  nominated  consul 
for  ten  years,  and  imperator  for  life  ; his  person  was  declared 
sacred  ; statues  of  him  were  placed  in  the  temples,  and  his  por- 
trait struck  on  coins ; in  his  honor  the  month  of  his  birth  was 
called  Julius  ; one  of  his  statues  bore  the  inscription,  “ To  the 
invincible  god,”  in  token  that  he  was  to  be  raised  to  the  rank 
of  the  gods.  His  power  equalled,  perhaps  excelled,  that  of 
any  monarch  who  ever  reigned;  yet  though  he  coveted,  he 


1 Pope  Gregory  XIII.  enacted  a further  correction  of  the  calendar  in 
a.d.  1582,  which  is  called  the  Gregorian. 


96 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[B.C. 


did  not  dare  to  assume,  the  regal  title,  or  its  badge,  the 
crown. 

For  five  centuries  the  Roman  people  had  nursed  an  invincible 
hatred  of  kings,  but  the  friends  of  Caesar  felt  that  if  that  an- 
tipathy could  be  overcome,  and  Caesar  be  made  king,  the  unity 
of  the  great  Roman  empire  might  be  preserved  and  handed  down 
to  his  successors.  Such  was  doubtless  the  mind  and  purpose  of 
Caesar,  who  embraced  the  opportunity  of  the  great  festival  of  the 
Lupercalia,  which  was  celebrated  in  the  presence  of  a vast 
Feb.  15,  assemblage,  to  feel  the  pulse  of  the  people.  Arrayed  in 
44  his  triumphal  robe  he  sat  in  a golden  chair  on  the  Rostra 
of  the  Forum,  witnessing  the  ceremonies,  when  Mark  Antony, 
his  friend  and  colleague  in  the  consulship,  made  his  way  to  him, 
and  offered  him  a diadem  wreathed  with  laurel.  The  people  who 
witnessed  the  act  stood  by  in  anxious  silence  ; Caesar  refused  the 
crown,  and  the  plaudits  of  the  multitude  filled  the  air ; Antony 
presented  it  again,  and  Caesar  again  rejected  it  amid  the  yet 
louder  applause  of  the  people,  and  ordered  it  to  be  taken  to  the 
Capitol. 

The  public  feeling,  though  a great  disappointment  to  Caesar, 
was  unmistakable.  His  enemies  suspecting  his  design,  made  it 
the  pretext  of  a conspiracy,  which  doubtless  originated  in  per- 
sonal hatred.  The  prime  mover  was  Cassius,  whose  hostility 
was  purely  personal ; Brutus,  the  nephew  and  son-in-law  of  Cato, 
on  the  other  hand,  may  have  joined  the  conspirators  because  he 
believed  Caesar  to  be  a tyrant,  and  an  enen^  to  his  country  ; 
most  of  the  others,  however,  appear  to  have  been  actuated  by 
party  hatred.  Brutus  could  not  have  had  a personal  motive, 
for  Caesar  honored  him  with  his  friendship  and  partiality.  On 
his  last  return  from  Spain  he  rode  with  Antony  and  Octavius  in 
Caesar’s  carriage  ; he  had  received  substantial  marks  of  that 
favor  in  the  enjoyment  of  lucrative  and  honorable  offices,  and  in 
the  will  of  Caesar  he  was  named  as  one  of  his  heirs.  It  is  im- 
possible to  exonerate  him  from  the  guilt  of  foul  ingratitude  and 
base  treachery. 


44.] 


JULIUS  CjESAR. 


97 


The  friends  of  Caesar  had  chosen  the  ides,  that  is,  the  15th 
day,  of  March,  for  a second  attempt  of  making  him  king,  and 
the  conspirators,  more  than  60  in  number,  had  fixed  upon  the 
same  day  for  his  assassination.  He  had  been  warned  of 
danger  by  his  friends  ; his  wife,  in  consequence  of  an  ill-omened 
dream,  entreated  him  not  to  go  to  the  Senate ; the  soothsayer 
Spurinna,  who  had  forewarned  himof  great  danger  that  threatened 
him  on  the  ides  of  March,  met  him  on  the  way  to  the  Senate  ; he 
called  out  to  him,  and  said,  laughing,  “ Well,  the  ides  of  March 
are  come”;  Spurinna  replied,  “Yes,  they  are  come,  but  they 
are  not  gone.”  A friend  actually  handed  to  him  a paper,  setting 
forth  the  details  of  the  conspiracy,  with  the  words,  “Caesar, 
read  this  alone  and  at  once ; it  contains  matter  of  the  ut- 
most importance  and  concern  to  you.”  He  could  not  find 
time  to  read  it,  and  held  it  in  his  hand  when  he  entered  the 
Senate.1 

The  senators  rose  in  his  honor.  As  he  went  to  his  chair, 
which  stood  near  the  statue  of  Pompey,  the  conspirators  con- 
trived to  surround  him,  and  one  of  their  number,  Tillius  Cim- 
ber,  presented  with  great  urgency  a petition  in  favor  of  his 
exiled  brother,  which  Caesar  refused.  Then  Cimber,  with  both 
hands  tore  the  toga  off  his  neck,  and  Casca  struck  him  there 
with  his  sword.  Caesar  turned  upon  him,  and  horror-struck,  ex- 
claimed, “Villain!  Casca!  what  dost  thou  mean?”  He  drew 
his  sword,  and  bravely  defended  himself  from  the  cowardly  at- 
tack ; the  blows  fell  thick  and  fast  upon  his  face  and  breast ; 
he  saw  nothing  but  steel,  and  received  nothing  but  wounds  ; he 
held  out  until  he  saw  Brutus  wound  him  in  a vital  part,  and  sor- 
rowfully exclaiming  in  Greek,  “ And  thou  too,  my  son  ! ” drew 
the  toga  over  his  face,  and  fell,  pierced  with  twenty-three 
wounds,  on  the  pedestal  of  Pompey’s  statue,  and  dyed  it  with 
his  blood. 

The  senators,  paralyzed  with  terror,  fled ; the  conspirators 


1 See  note,  p.  99. 


98 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[B.C. 


rushed  forth  to  proclaim  their  atrocious  deed,  which  Brutus  the 
next  day  sought  to  justify.  The  Senate  decreed  to  Caesar 
divine  honors  and  a magnificent  public  funeral,  and  appointed 
Antony  to  deliver  his  funeral  oration ; they  also  passed  a gen- 
eral amnesty,  and  bestowed  governments  and  honors  on  Brutus 
and  his  friends,  imagining  that  their  action  had  been  wise  and 
generally  satisfactory. 

In  this  the}'  were  mistaken.  When  the  will  of  Caesar  had 
been  read,  and  it  was  found  that  he  had  left  a legacy  to  every 
Roman  citizen,  and  the  people  beheld  the  mangled  body  in  front 
of  the  Rostra,  it  was  impossible  to  restrain  them.  The  veterans, 
with  torches,  rushed  forth  and  set  fire  to  the  bier ; the  people 
tore  up  the  benches,  the  tables,  and  the  very  doors,  for  a funeral 
pyre ; the  women  cast  their  ornaments,  and  the  soldiers  their 
arms,  into  the  flames.  Antony  increased  the  excitement  of  the 
infuriated  people  by  lifting  up  the  blood-stained  toga  and  show- 
ing the  rents  which  the  daggers  had  made.  Then  snatching 
flaming  brands  from  the  pile,  some  went  forth  to  set  on  fire 
the  houses  of  the  assassins,  while  others  ranged  the  city  to 
seize  their  persons  and  tear  them  in  pieces.  Many  were  slain 
at  the  time ; Brutus  and  Cassius  fled  the  country,  but  they 
were  put  to  death.  Trebonius  was  the  first,  and  Cassius 
the  last  of  the  murderers  of  Caesar  who  perished  by  a violent 
death. 

Thus  died,  in  the  56th  year  of  his  life,  Julius  Caesar,  who, 
although  the  epithet  “ great  ” does  not  form  part  of  his  name,  was 
not  only  the  greatest  of  Romans,  but  the  greatest  man  in  anti- 
quity. His  greatness  extends  alike  to  his  military  genius,  and 
to  his  acknowledged  proficiency  in  almost  every  department  of 
intellectual  life.  He  was  an  accomplished  statesman,  a wise 
law-giver,  an  eminent  jurist,  and  a brilliant  orator.  He  shone 
as  an  author  in  history,  poetry,  and  astronomy,  and  was  an  ex- 
cellent linguist,  mathematician,  and  architect.  He  was  kind, 
affable,  liberal,  and  magnanimous.  His  faults  were,  besides 
those  of  his  age,  ambition  and  vain  glory,  but  his  moral  short- 


44.] 


JULIUS  CAESAR. 


99 


comings  were  covered  by  the  dazzling  brilliancy  of  his  public 
virtues. 


REFERENCES. 

Besides  the  General  Histories  of  Rome  repeatedly  named  in  former 
references,  and  the  excellent  article  “ Caesar  ” in  Smith’s  “ Dictionary,” 
etc.,  consult  Plutarch,  “ Julius  Caesar  ” and  “ Pompey.”  The  German 
work  of  Drumann,  “ History  of  Rome,”  contains  the  best  account  of 
his  life,  and  Napoleon  III.’s  “Jules  Cesar,”  avast  amount  of  valuable 
information. 


NOTE. 

Caesar,  being  a sceptic,  was  free  from  the  superstition  of  his  age ; he 
disbelieved  omens,  and  smiled  at  the  credulity  of  others.  Shortly 
before  his  death  he  was  told  that  the  horses  which  had  carried  him 
over  the  Rubicon  refused  food  and  shed  tears.  This  was  thought  to 
be  as  ominous  as  the  alleged  exhumation  of  a brazen  tablet  from  the 
tomb  of  Capys  with  an  inscription  importing  that  the  exposure  of  his 
bones  would  be  followed  by  the  murder  of  a descendant  of  Julus,  as 
the  pretended  flight  of  a wren  with  a twig  of  laurel  into  the  Pompeian 
Curia,  where  it  was  torn  to  pieces  by  a number  of  other  birds,  and 
as  the  divine  admonitions  in  the  aspect  of  sacrifices. 

Caesar  is  known  to  have  disregarded  the  last,  yet  such  was  his 
deference  to  public  sentiment  that  in  one  of  his  triumphs  he  ascended 
on  his  knees  the  long  flight  of  steps  of  the  Capitol,  in  order  that  by 
this  act  of  voluntary  humility  he  might  avert  the  wrath  of  the  gods, 
who  were  believed  to  envy  and  punish  the  excessive  prosperity  of 
mortals. 


100 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


272-337]  CONSTANTINE  THE  GREAT. 


More  than  forty  emperors  had  ruled  the  Roman  empire, 
when  Constantine,  after  eighteen  years  of  warfare  for  suprem- 
1 acy,  ascended  the  throne.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of 
the  emperor  Constantius  Chlorus,  by  his  first  wife 
Helena,  and  exposed  in  early  life  to  peculiar  trials,  which 
are  believed  to  have  taught  him  the  self-command,  sagacity, 
and  discretion  for  which  he  became  famous.  Glad  to  escape 
from  the  jealous  observation  of  the  emperor  Galerius,  he  re- 
paired to  his  father,  who  was  emperor  of  the  West,  and  accom- 
panied him  on  an  expedition  against  the  Piets  in  North  Britain. 
His  father,  wdio  died  at  York,  was  an  excellent  man,  with  the 
enviable  reputation  of  having  been  a wise,  kind,  and  just  ruler, 
whose  humanity,  moderation,  and  impartiality  were  praised  by 
Pagans  and  Christians  alike. 


There  is  little  doubt  that  the  example  of  his  father,  not  less 
than  that  of  his  mother,  influenced  and  shaped  the  course  of 
Constantine  in  his  treatment  of  the  Christians  ; for  he  not  only 
protected  them  in  his  own  dominions,  but  used  his  influence 
with  Galerius  and  Maximin  to  stop  the  persecutions  to  which 
they  were  exposed  in  the  East.  It  is  said,  with  how  much  truth 
one  cannot  tell,  that  on  his  march  from  Gaul  into  Italy,  where 
Maxentius  had  seized  the  purple,  he  thought  much  on  the  sub- 
ject of  religion,  wandering  which  he  should  choose,  that  of  the 
Pagans,  or  that  of  the  Christians.  Musing  upon  the  terrible 
fate  of  so  many  of  his  predecessors  who  had  worshipped  many 
gods, ‘and  contrasting  it  with  the  happy  life  of  his  father,  he 
felt  that  his  father’s  God  was  the  true  God,  and  that  he  ought 
to  worship  Him.  Under  the  spell  of  such  thoughts  and  feelings 
he  prayed  for  divine  help  and  direction. 


272-337.] 


CONSTANTINE  THE  GREAT. 


101 


Suddenly,  about  noon,  as  the  day  was  declining,  he  saw  in 
the  heavens,  higher  than  the  sun,  a luminous  appearance  in  the 
shape  of  a cross,  and  read  in  flaming  letters  the  words:  4 ‘In 
this  conquer.”  That  he  saw  it,  or  believed  that  he  saw  it,  can- 
not be  denied,  for  the  historian  who  records  the  matter  had  the 
statement  from  the  lips  of  Constantine  himself,  who  swore  that 
it  was  true.  Of  course  his  swearing  did  not  establish  the  truth 
of  his  words,  for  it  is  a well-known  fact  that  he  was  in  the  habit 
of  swearing ; but  the  fact  that  the  historian  mentions  this  cir- 
cumstance proves  that  his  record  is  true.  The  emperor,  it  is 
also  known,  was  religiously  inclined,  and  reposed  great  faith  in 
dreams  and  visions.  When,  therefore,  in  the  night  which  fol- 
lowed, he  saw  in  a dream  the  figure  of  Christ,  carrying  the  same 
sign  which  he  had  seen  in  the  sky,  admonishing  him  to  provide 
a standard,  like  the  celestial  pattern,  to  be  carried  as  a token 
of  victory  before  his  army,  he  read  therein  an  answer  to  his 
prayer,  and  forthwith  commanded  that  thereafter  the  standard 
of  the  cross  should  displace  the  Roman  eagles. 

That  famous  standard  was  called  the  Labarum , but  why,  I 
cannot  tell,  for  the  excellent  reason  that  I do  not  know  it  my- 
self, and  find  myself  in  good  and  large  company,  for  no  one  else 
seems  to  know  it  either.  It  is  described  as  a long  pike,  inter- 
sected by  a transversal  beam  ; on  the  top  glittered  a crown  of 
gold,  with  the  sacred  monogram,  expressive  at  once  of  the  cross 
and  of  the  first  two  letters  of  the  name  of  Christ,  spelled  in 
Greek  characters,  that  is,  X and  P.  From  the  beam  was  sus- 
pended a silken  veil,  embroidered  with  the  images  of  the  reign- 
ing monarch  and  his  children. 

This  was  a tremendous  change,  for  until  then  the  cross  had 
been  a symbol  loathsome  and  abhorrent  to  the  Romans,  sugges- 
tive of  the  guilt  of  criminals,  who  had  suffered  the  penalty  of 
the  law  in  the  painful  and  shameful  torture  of  crucifixion.  That 
same  symbol  now  glittered  on  the  helmets  and  shields  of 
Constantine’s  warriors,  and  shone  in  the  texture  of  their 
banners. 


102 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


The  battle  of  the  Milvian  Bridge,  in  which  Constantine  routed 
Oct.  28,  the  army  of  Maxentius,  and  in  which  Maxentius  himself 
312  found  a watery  grave  in  the  Tiber,  was  fought  under  that 
banner,  the  first  of  a series  of  victories,  which  earned  for  Con- 
stantine the  name  of  Victor,  or  Conqueror. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  he  immediately  gave 
up  all  connection  with  Paganism,  which  was  still  very  strong  in 
the  world,  and  especially  at  Pome.  So  when  a triumphal  arch 
was  set  up  to  commemorate  the  victory  of  the  Milvian  Bridge, 
it  bore  the  inscription,  that  it  was  due  to  Providence  and  to  his 
genius.  In  that  way  he  tried  not  to  offend  the  pagan  priests 
and  the  people.  He  was  yet  halting  between  two  opinions  and 
seeking  to  please  everybody.  On  his  coins  he  had  put  on  the 
one  side  the  name  of  Christ,  and  on  the  other  the  figure  of  the 
Sun-god. 

After  a while,  however,  he  became  a more  pronounced  fol- 
lower  of  Christ,  and  resolved  to  build  a new  city  in  the 
Eastern  part  of  the  vast  empire  of  which  he  had  become 
sole  ruler.  That  new  capital  was  destined  to  be  a bulwark 
against  the  Persians  and  the  Goths,  who  were  threatening  his 
dominions,  and  to  become  a Christian  city  even  more  splendid 
and  magnificent  than  Pome,  the  pagan  capital  of  the  West. 

In  his  choice  of  a suitable  site,  the  legend  says,  he  was 
divinely  directed.  As  he  stood  undecided,  an  eagle  soared  on 
high  and  marked  the  spot.  He  dreamt  also,  as  he  slept  in 
Byzantium,  that  the  venerable  guardian  deity  of  the  place  came 
to  him  as  an  ancient  matron  bent  under  the  infirmity  of  years, 
and  was  suddenly  changed  into  a youthful  maiden,  whom  he 
adorned  with  all  the  symbols  of  imperial  splendor.  He  awoke, 
and  knew  that  Old  Byzantium  was  to  become  the  New  Pome, 
the  city  to  be  known  as  his  own  city,  as  Constantinople,  that 
is,  the  City  of  Constantine. 

Byzantium  could  boast  an  antiquity  of  more  than  three  cen- 
turies, and  trace  its  origin  to  the  direction  of  the  oracle  that  the 
founders  should  build  it  opposite  to  the  land  of  the  blind.  But 


312-324.] 


CONSTANTINE  THE  GREAT . 


103 


it  could  boast  more,  for  its  position  was  incomparable  ; it  com- 
manded the  shores  of  two  continents,  and  united  the  advan- 
tages of  security  and  facilities  for  commerce  with  the  choicest 
gifts  of  nature  and  the  most  strikingly  picturesque  scenery. 

That  ancient  and  pagan  city  was  destined  to  be  enriched  with 
imperial  splendor  and  enlarged  to  the  dimensions  worthy  of  the 
capital  of  the  great  Roman  empire.  On  the  day  fixed  for  its 
birthday,  Constantine  himself,  with  a spear  in  his  hand,  led  the 
solemn  procession  and  traced  the  boundary  line  along  an  im- 
mense circuit.  As  he  did  not  pause,  the  attendants,  amazed  at 
the  vast  area  already  enclosed,  asked  him  how  far  he  intended 
to  go.  The  emperor  replied  : u I shall  go  on  till  He  who  guides 
me  stops.”  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  he  did  say,  that  he 
built  Constantinople  by  Divine  command. 

The  walls  of  Constantine  extended  from  the  Sea  of  Marmora 
to  the  Euxine.  An  imperial  palace,  thirteen  other  palaces,  four- 
teen churches,  numerous  public  buildings,  and  more  than  4000 
superior  private  dwellings  sprang  up,  as  if  by  magic,  at  an 
almost  incredible  expense ; the  amount  appropriated  for  the 
building  of  the  walls,  the  porticos,  and  the  aqueducts  was  about 
twelve  and  a half  millions  of  dollars.  Many  of  the  heathen 
temples  were  converted  into  Christian  churches,  the  city  was 
consecrated  to  Christ,  and  the  statues  of  Helena  his  mother,  and 
of  Constantine,  carried  in  their  hands  the  Christian  symbol  of 
the  cross. 

But  even  then  heathenish  notions  that  possessed  his  mind 
found  expression  in  the  construction,  by  his  order,  of  his  own 
statue,  of  gilt  wood,  set  up  on  a triumphal  car,  which  was  led 
in  solemn  procession  through  the  Hippodrome,  to  which  the 
people,  and  afterwards,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  city’s  birthday, 
also  the  reigning  emperor,  paid  the  homage  of  adoration.  He 
also  setup  in  the  centre  of  the  Forum  a lofty  column,  surmounted, 
more  than  120  feet  from  the  ground,  by  a colossal  statue  of 
Apollo,  which  had  been  transported  either  from  Athens  or  else- 
where. It  was  of  bronze,  and  represented  the  god  of  the  day, 


104 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[A.D 


or,  as  it  was  afterwards  interpreted,  the  emperor  himself,  with 
the  sceptre  in  his  right  hand,  and  the  globe  of  the  world  in  his 
left,  while  a crown  of  rays,  formed  of  the  nails  of  the  Passion, 
glittered  on  his  head. 

The  dedication  of  the  city  took  place  a.d.  330,  and  though  by 
an  edict  engraved  on  a marble  column,  it  received  the  title  of 
Second  or  New  Rome,  the  name  of  Constantinople  has  prevailed 
over  it. 

Among  the  most  important  events  of  his  reign  is  the  Great 


325] 


Church  Council  of  Nicsea,  over  which  he  presided,  and  in 


which  was  set  forth  the  confession  of  belief,  known  as 
the  Creed.  His  interest  in  the  Christian  religion  was  undoubt- 
edly great,  and  he  even  often  preached  to  thousands  of  hearers, 
who  by  general  invitation  had  flocked  to  the  palace.  He  stood 
erect,  and  poured  forth  his  sermon  with  a grave  voice  and  a 
solemn  face.  Now  and  then  the  audience  cheered  him,  when  he 
would  point  upwards,  bidding  them  by  that  gesture  give  glory 
to  God,  and  not  to  himself.  But  he  was  not  always  so  gentle  ; 
for  on  one  occasion,  desirous  of  rebuking  those  who,  though 
they  cheered  his  sentiments,  failed  to  put  them  to  practice,  he 
seized  one  of  his  courtiers,  noted  for  rapacity,  and  drawing  on 
the  ground  with  his  spear  the  figure  of  a man,  said  to  him,  “ In 
this  space  is  contained  all  that  you  will  carry  with  you  after 
death.” 

On  the  eve  of  an  expedition  against  Sapor  II.,  king  of  Persia, 
he  fell  sick,  and  went  to  Helenopolis  for  the  mineral  waters. 
Until  then  he  had  not  been  baptized,  but  now  craved  that  sac- 
rament. In  the  palace  of  the  suburb  of  Nicomedia  he  laid  aside 
the  purple,  and  was  clothed  in  white  ; the  couch  on  which  he 
lay  was  covered  with  white  also,  and  the  bishop  Eusebius  came 
1 in  and  baptized  him.  That  happened  in  Easter  week ; 
on  Whitsun-Day  at  noon  he  died.  His  body  was  laid 
out  in  a coffin  of  gold,  and  borne  to  the  palace  at  Constantino- 
ple, where  for  the  space  of  three  months  it  lay  in  state.  Euse- 
bius had  placed  in  the  dead  man's  hand  his  will,  which  was  to 


325-327.]  CONSTANTINE  THE  GREAT . 


105 


be  given  to  his  son  Constantius,  who  was  away.  It  is  said  to 
have  expressed  the  emperor’s  belief  that  his  brothers  and  their 
children  had  poisoned  him,  and  to  have  bidden  Constantins  to 
avenge  his  death.  The  result  was  the  massacre  of  six  imperial 
princes,  and  the  flight  of  two  others. 

To  the  Church  of  the  Apostles,  the  mausoleum  provided  by 
himself,  his  body  was  borne  and  laid  to  rest  in  a sarcophagus  of 
porphyry.  In  that  church  the  Byzantine  emperors  lay  in  impe- 
rial state  until  their  coffins  were  rifled,  and  their  bodies  cast  out 
in  the  Fourth  Crusade.  A sarcophagus,  called  “ of  Constantine/’ 
is  preserved  in  the  Museum  in  the  Seraglio. 

Constantine  was  a remarkable  man,  and  both  as  a conqueror 
and  a ruler  deserves  the  name  of  Great.  He  made  Christianity 
the  religion  of  the  empire,  but  tolerated  Paganism.  He  was 
superstitious,  and  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life  jealous  and  vin- 
dictive. By  his  order  his  own  son  Crispus  was  put  to  death 
either  by  the  sword  or  by  poison,  and  Fausta,  his  wife,  suffo- 
cated in  a bath.  In  many  things  he  deserves  neither  the  admi- 
ration nor  the  imitation  of  mankind. 

REFERENCES. 

Gibbon,  “ Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire/’  Milman’s  edition, 
vol.  II.;  Stanley,  “History  of  the  Eastern  Church,”  FT. Y.  1862,  pp. 
282-317.  Smith,  “Dictionary,”  etc.,  under  “Constantine.” 

NOTE. 

The  land  of  the  blind , opposite  to  Byzantium,  designates  the  city  of 
Chalcedon,  whose  founders  having  the  choice  of  two  sites,  were  blind 
to  the  superior  advantages  of  the  site  of  Byzantium,  which  was 
founded  seventeen  years  after  the  settlement  of  their  own  city. 
Herod.  IV.  144. 


106 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


Reigns  from 

434-454] 


ATTILA. 


The  Huns  in  ancient  times  ranged  over  the  vast  tracts  of 
Central  Asia  extending  from  the  Volga  eastward  to  the  Pacific  ; 
they  were  the  terror  of  the  nations  of  Asia,  and  especially  of  the 
Chinese,  who,  as  early  as  about  two  and  a half  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era,  constructed  a wall,  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
feet  high  and  fifteen  hundred  miles  in  length,  against  their  in- 
roads. In  those  early  days  the  Chinese  were  tributary  to  them  ; 
they  had  to  pay  every  year  not  only  money  and  silk,  but  were 
required  to  send  also  a chosen  band  of  their  fairest  daughters  to 
become  the  wives  of  the  fierce  and  uglyHunnish  chiefs.  There 
are  still  extant  the  verses  of  a Chinese  princess  who  bewails  her 
sad  lot  as  such  a wife,  condemned  to  have  sour  milk  for  her  only 
drink,  raw  flesh  for  her  only  food,  and  a tent  for  her  only  palace, 
and  wishing  herself  a bird  that  she  might  fly  back  to  her  dear 
country  and  loved  home. 

The  Huns  were  so  ugly  that  they  were  regarded  to  be  the 
offspring  of  witches  and  fiends.  Their  forms  were  strong  and 
muscular,  rather  below  than  of  a middle  size.  Their  shoulders 
were  broad,  their  necks  short  and  thick  ; their  foreheads  narrow, 
their  noses  flat ; they  had  small,  black,  and  piercing  eyes,  deeply 
buried  in  the  head ; thin,  black,  slanting  eyebrows,  long  and 
protruding  ears,  large  mouths,  and  hardly  any  beard.  They 
made  their  appearance  still  more  repulsive  b}’  gashing  their 
cheeks,  partly  to  terrify  their  enemies  by  such  unsightly  scars, 
and  partly  to  prevent  the  growth  of  the  beard.  In  summer  they 
wore  linen  smocks,  in  winter  the  skins  of  beasts  ; the}"  wrapped 
goat-skins  round  their  limbs,  wore  rough  shoes  of  monstrous 
size,  and  huge  fur  caps.  They  did  not  prepare  their  food  by 
means  of  fire ; they  ate  herbs,  roots,  and  berries  as  they  grew, 


374-375] 


AT  TIL  A. 


107 


and  raw  flesh  made  mellow  by  being  placed  as  a saddle  on  their 
horses.  Besides  tents  they  had  only  rude  huts  covered  with 
reeds.  They  almost  lived  on  horseback,  they  ate  and  slept  there, 
and  even  attended  public  assemblies  on  their  horses.  Warfare 
was  their  life  and  their  delight.  They  surprised  the  enemy  by 
rushing  upon  him  like  a whirlwind,  with  terrible  yells  ; then 
they  scattered  with  amazing  speed  in  all  directions,  but  as 
quickly  returned  to  the  assault  with  irresistible  fury.  At  a 
distance  they  employed  arrows  and  spears  tipped  with  sharp- 
ened bones  ; in  close  combat  they  used  the  sword , and  held 
in  readiness  a lasso  with  which  they  caught,  and  dragged  after 
them,  those  who  had  escaped  their  sword.  On  the  march  an 
innumerable  multitude  of  carts,  with  their  wives  and  children, 
followed  their  army. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  the  Chinese  had  van- 
quished the  Huns,  and  compelled  them  to  leave  their  p 
ancient  haunts  in  Central  Asia.  Seeking  a new  home 
the}r  moved  in  prodigious  numbers  westward,  crossed  p 
the  Volga,  and  encountered  in  the  plains  between  that 
river  and  the  Don  the  Alani,  who  joined  them.  Then  the  Huns 
and  the  Alani  amalgamated  and  passed  over  the  Don,  where 
they  overwhelmed  the  Ostrogoths,  separated  from  the  Visigoths 
by  the  river  Dniester.  The  victorious  Huns  then  crossed  that 
river  also,  and  forced  the  Visigoths  to  leave  their  country  to 
find  a new  home  beyond  the  Danube  under  the  protection  of 
Valens,  the  Roman  emperor  of  the  East,  while  some,  led  by 
Athanaric  their  king,  escaped  into  the  mountainous  country  of 
Caucaland,  or  Transylvania.  The  Huns,  the  Alani,  and  the 
Ostrogoths  together  pushed  farther  westward  and  established 
themselves  in  Hungary  and  Southern  Russia.  The  violent 
impulse  given  by  these  colossal  movements  in  Eastern  Europe 
was  also  felt  in  Western  Europe,  and  for  the  space  of  about 
two  centuries  disturbed  the  peace  and  repose  of  the  p 
whole  continent.  It  is  known  in  history  as  the 
Great  Migration  of  Nations. 


108 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


375] 

West, 

476] 


1463] 


During  that  time  the  emperor  Theodosius,  upon  his  death, 
divided  the  Roman  empire  into  two  parts.  Of  his  two 
sons,  Honorius,  the  younger,  became  emperor  of  the 
and  his  dominions  embraced  parts  of  North  Africa, 
Italy,  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain.  Rome  was  its  capital, 
and  this  empire  lasted  about  a century  longer.  Arcadius, 
his  elder  son,  became  emperor  of  the  East,  and  his  dominion 
extended  over  Egypt,  parts  of  Asia,  Greece,  and  Macedonia. 
Its  capital  was  Constantinople,  and  it  continued  until 
the  capture  of  that  city  by  Mohammed  II. 

About  70  years  after  the  establishment  of  the  Huns  and  their 
allies  in  the  region  of  Hungary  and  Russia,  Attila  became 
their  king.  He  was  a true  Hun  for  ugliness,  small  of 
stature,  but  as  strong  in  body  as  he  was  firm  of  will.  His  step 
was  haughty  and  defiant,  and  when  he  fiercely  rolled  his  small 
and  piercing  eyes,  he  filled  with  terror  those  who  saw  him.  His 
capital,  or  rather  his  camp,  was  in  the  plains  of  Upper  Hungary, 
between  the  Theiss  and  the  Danube.  Within  the  enclosure  of 
a lofty  wooden  wall,  or  palisade  of  square,  smooth  timber,  lay 
his  village  of  wooden  dwellings.  His  house,  also  built  of  wood, 
was  commodious  and  adorned  with  rude  magnificence.  The 
room  of  his  queen,  at  least,  had  a carpeted  floor.  His  dress, 
his  arms,  and  the  trappings  of  his  horse  were  plain  and  of  one 
color.  Though  the  other  Huns  were  fond  of  displaying  on  their 
tables  the  gold  and  silver  plate  of  which  they  had  spoiled  their 
enemies,  the  table  of  Attila  was  served  in  w^ooden  cups  and 
platters  ; flesh  was  his  only  food,  and  he  never  tasted  bread. 

In  that  village  of  the  wilderness  the  heathen  potentate  received 
ambassadors  from  the  most  distant  regions,  who  came  to  court 
his  favor,  even  from  Rome  and  Constantinople.  Silent  and 
stern,  or  fiercely  angry,  he  sat  in  a wooden  chair,  and  amazed 
the  ambassadors  of  the  emperor  with  the  question : 4 4 What 
fortress,  what  city  in  the  wide  extent  of  the  Roman  empire, 
can  hope  to  exist,  secure  and  impregnable,  if  it  is  our  pleasure 
that  it  should  be  erased  from  the  earth?  ” 


375-450.] 


ATT  I LA. 


109 


At  a banquet  to  which  they  were  invited,  two  Scythian  min- 
strels rehearsed  in  glowing  verse  the  valor  and  the  victories 
of  Attila,  which  animated  the  martial  enthusiasm  of  the  rude 
warriors,  while  the  performances  of  two  buffoons  excited  their 
mirth. 

His  empire  was  immense,  and  extended  from  the  confines  of 
Gaul  to  those  of  China. 

One  day  a shepherd  found  in  the  ground  an  old  sword,  which 
he  presented  to  Attila,  who  declared  that  it  was  the  sword  of 
the  Scythian  god  of  war,  the  possession  of  which  rendered  the 
owner  invincible.  This  the  Huns  readily  believed,  and  saw 
further  confirmation  of  their  belief  in  the  death,  or  more  cor- 
rectly, in  the  murder,  of  Bleda,  the  king’s  brother.  The  terror 
with  which  he  filled  his  subjects,  who  trembled  to  lift  their  eyes 
to  the  divine  majesty  of  the  invincible  king,  spread  also  among 
the  nations  of  Christendom  whom  he  sought  to  impress  with  the 
idea  that  he  was  the  terrible  Antichrist,  and  the  savage  cruelty 
of  this  bloodthirsty  conqueror  has  earned  for  him,  by  common 
consent,  the  dreadful  surname  of  Godegisel , that  is,  the  Scourge 
of  God. 

The  story  of  his  ravage  of  the  country  from  the  Adriatic  to 
the  Black  Sea  was  long  remembered  ; where  his  Huns  had  been, 
destruction  and  desolation  remained,  and  not  less  than  70  cities 
of  the  Eastern  empire  lay  in  ruins.  He  was  virtually  the 
master  of  that  empire,  who  of  his  clemency  compelled  the 
nominal  ruler  to  submit  to  the  most  harsh  and  humiliating  con- 
ditions of  peace. 

Then  followed,  on  various  pretexts,  his  invasion  of  Western 
Europe  at  the  head  of  half  a million  of  warriors,  who  left 
destruction  in  their  path  through  Austria  and  Germany  to  the 
confluence  of  the  Neckar  and  the  Rhine.  The  cities  were 
reduced  to  ashes,  and  the  people  put  to  the  sword.  Thus  he 
entered  Gaul,  it  is  believed,  by  the  way  of  Strassburg,  and 
marched  upon  Orleans.  An  obstinate  siege  ensued  ; the  Huns 
had  shaken  the  walls  with  their  battering  rams,  and  mastered  the 


110 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


suburbs  ; such  of  the  people  as  were  unable  to  bear  arms,  lay 
prostrate  in  prayer  to  God  for  help  ; then  in  the  hour  of  their 
supreme  distress,  the  good  bishop  Anianus  saw  from  the  rampart 
a small  cloud  in  the  distance,  and  cheered  the  brave  defenders  with 
the  glad  tidings  that  it  was  the  help  of  God.  The  cloud  grew 
larger  and  came  nearer,  a strong  breeze  scattered  the  dust,  the 
Roman  and  Gothic  banners  were  seen,  and  the  mighty  host  of 
Aetius  and  Theodoric  came  to  relieve  the  stronghold  of  Orleans. 

Attila  at  once  raised  the  siege,  and  ordered  his  army  to 
retreat  to  the  Cataulanian  fields,  a vast  plain  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Chalons  ; the  Romans  pressed  hard  upon  the  Huns, 
and  compelled  them  to  give  battle.  The  contest  was 
terrific  and  fatal  to  the  Huns.  The  battle  raged  all  day, 
the  blood  of  more  than  250,000  slain  ran  in  torrents,  and  legend 
says,  caused  a small  stream  to  rise  so  high  that  it  swept  away 
their  bodies.  Had  the  Romans  been  able  to  push  their  advan- 
tage, they  might  have  annihilated  the  army  of  Attila.  As  it 
was,  Attila  had  prepared  for  the  worst,  and  ordered  the  saddles 
of  his  cavalry  to  be  reared  into  a funeral  pile,  to  be  set  on  fire 
if  his  intrenchments  should  be  forced,  it  being  his  purpose  to 
rush  into  the  flames,  rather  than  fall  dead  or  alive  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy. 

Attila  returned  to  Hungary,  and  as  soon  as  he  had  recruited 
his  forces,  set  out  for  Italy  to  fetch  Honoria,  the  emperor’s 
sister,  as  his  bride,  and  to  take  possession  of  her  dowry,  the 
dominion  of  the  Western  empire.  He  passed  the  Alps  and 
besieged  Aquileia  with  a multitude  of  barbarians.  After  a 
three  months’  ineffectual  siege,  the  want  of  provisions  and  the 
clamors  of  his  army  induced  Attila  to  order  a retreat.  On  the 
day  before,  he  rode,  gloomy  and  angry  at  his  failure,  round  the 
walls,  and  noticed  a stork  with  her  young  leave  her  nest  and 
452]  ^ country*  This,  he  told  his  warriors,  was  an 

omen  of  victory  ; the  siege  was  renewed  ; a large  breach 
was  made  in  that  part  of  the  wall  where  the  stork  had  had  her 
nest,  through  which  myriads  of  Huns  poured  in,  and,  with  irre- 


451-453.] 


ATTILA . 


Ill 


sistible  fury  demolished  the  place  so  absolutely,  that  the  next 
generation  could  hardly  find  the  ruins. 

He  overran  and  ravaged  the  greater  part  of  Lombardy. 
Many  of  the  people  fled  and  found  a safe  refuge  in  the  islands 
of  the  Adriatic,  where  they  founded  the  city  of  Venice. 

In  his  progress,  Attila  had  pitched  his  camp  on  the  Mincio, 
preparatory  to  a march  upon  Rome,  when  there  appeared  before 
him  a distinguished  Roman  embassy,  in  the  persons  of  Avienus, 
and  Leo  the  Great,  then  bishop  of  Rome.  His  wise  and  elo- 
quent appeals  touched  the  heart  of  Attila,  who  perhaps  from 
superstitious  fear  of  the  consequences  of  an  attack  on  the  city  of 
Rome,  or  influenced  by  the  ravages  of  disease  resulting  from 
the  excesses  of  his  soldiers,  yielded  to  Leo’s  entreaties,  agreed 
to  an  armistice,  but  threatened  to  return  if  Honoria,  his  impe- 
rial bride,  were  not  delivered  to  his  ambassadors  at  the  time 
stated  in  the  treaty. 

Then,  laden  with  the  rich  spoil  of  more  than  a hundred  cities, 
Attila  and  his  hordes  retraced  their  march  to  Hungary. 

Meanwhile,  Attila,  who,  like  other  Asiatics,  practised  polyg- 
amy, had  led  home  to  his  wooden  palace  beyond  the  Danube 
another  wife,  the  beautiful  Ildico,  or  Hildegund.  The  marriage 
was  celebrated  with  barbaric  splendor  amidst  the  boisterous 
rejoicings  of  the  camp.  Alarmed  by  the  failure  of  Attila  to 
appear  amongst  them,  they  repaired  to  his  palace,  and  tried  to 
awaken  him  by  martial  cries.  But  as  he  did  not  respond,  they 
forced  their  way  to  the  royal  apartment,  where  they  found  the 
bride  veiled,  sitting  before  the  corpse  of  Attila.  He  had 
burst  an  arter}7. 

The  Huns  were  paralyzed  with  terror  and  sorrow.  They  laid 
him  in  state  under  a silken  pavilion  set  up  in  the  midst  of  the 
plain.  Chosen  squadrons  of  horse  wheeled  round  and  chanted 
a wild  funeral  song.  They  cut  off  their  hair,  gashed  their  faces 
with  unsightly  wounds,  and  rehearsed  the  praises  of  the  dead 
hero,  who  glorious  in  life,  invincible  in  death,  had  been  the 
father  of  his  people,  the  scourge  of  his  enemies,  and  the  terror 


[453 


112 


ANCIENT  HISTORY . 


of  the  world.  The  remains  were  placed  in  three  coffins,  of  gold, 
silver,  and  iron,  and  privately  buried  during  the  night ; his 
weapons  and  precious  spoil  were  cast  into  his  grave ; the  cap- 
tives who  had  dug  it,  they  forced  to  absolute  reticence  as  to  the 
place  of  his  burial,  for  they  were  massacred  on  the  spot; 
and  then  they  kept  with  boisterous  mirth  the  funeral  feast. 

Such  was  the  end  of  Attila,  whose  name  was  the  terror  of  the 
nations,  and  whose  empire  had  extended  from  the  frontier  of 
China  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  His  death  was  hailed  as  a uni- 
versal blessing.  The  emperor  Marcian,  according  to  legend, 
beheld  in  a dream,  on  the  auspicious  night  of  the  event,  the 
broken  bow  of  Attila,  and  breathed  freely. 

The  huge  and  disjointed  fabric  of  his  empire  fell  into  pieces. 
The  subdued  nations  shook  off  the  hated  and  galling  yoke  of  the 
Huns,  who  under  the  contentions  of  numerous  claimants  to  the 
inheritance  of  Attila  gradually  destroyed  one  another,  and  a 
new  flood  of  other  barbarians  of  the  North  finally  extinguished 
the  empire  of  the  Huns. 

The  rise  and  fall  of  the  Huns  had  been  instrumental  in  the 
fall  of  the  Western  empire.  The  last  emperor,  Augustulus, 
disgraced  the  name  of  the  first  king,  and  of  the  first  emperor  of 
Rome.  Odoacer,  a Rugian,  had  risen  in  the  imperial  guard  at 
Rome,  and  been  prominent  in  the  support  of  Orestes, 
when  he  caused  his  son  Romulus  Augustulus  to  be  chosen 
emperor.  For  that  service  the  barbarians  demanded  to  be  re- 
warded with  the  third  of  the  soil  of  Italy,  to  be  divided  among 
them.  Orestes  refusing  their  demand,  Odoacer  bade  the  mal- 
contents join  his  standard,  as  the  surest  and  easiest  road  to  the 
accomplishment  of  their  purpose.  So  Odoacer  went  to  war 
against  Orestes  and  shut  him  up  in  Pavia  ; he  besieged  the 
place  and  took  it  by  storm  ; the  town  was  pillaged  and  Orestes 
put  to  death ; in  an  action  near  Ravenna,  Paul,  the  brother  of 


475] 


476] 


Orestes,  was  slain,  and  Odoacer,  as  victor,  deposed  the 


helpless  Augustulus,  gave  him  a castle  in  Lower  Italy, 
and  soon  after  assumed  the  style  and  title  of  u King  of  Italy. ” 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


113 


Thus  ended  the  Roman  empire.  The  fall  of  the  Western 
empire  is  the  last  event  recorded  in  Ancient  History. 

REFERENCES. 

Gibbon,  “ Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,”  Mil  man’s 
edition,  vol.  III. ; Smith,  “ Dictionary,”  etc.,  under  “Attila,”  which 
gives  also  an  account  of  important  collateral  literature;  Creasy, 
“Fifteen  Decisive  Battles.”  German  students  will  find  much  and 
interesting  information  of  Attila  in  the  Nibelungen  Lied. 

CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

The  dates  of  events  in  Grecian  History  anterior  to  b.c.  776  are 
uncertain  and  conjectural.  That  year  is  the  era  of  the  Greeks,  from 
which  they  measured  time  by  Olympiads,  or  periods  of  four  years. 
The  first  authentic  Olympiad  is  known  as  that  of  Coroebus  the  Elean, 
who  gained  the  prize  in  the  foot-race  at  the  Olympic  games  celebrated 
in  the  year  b.c.  776.  The  games  were  celebrated  every  five  years, 
and  the  period  of  four  years  which  elapsed  between  two  successive 
celebrations  of  the  great  national  festival  was  called  an  Olympiad. 

The  Roman  historians  measured  time  from  the  year  of  the  founda- 
tion of  the  city,  expressed  by  the  letters  A.U.C.,  that  is,  ab  urbe 
condita , in  English,  “from  the  foundation  of  the  city,”  placed  by  M. 
Terentius  Verro  on  the  21st  of  April  in  the  third  year  of  the  sixth 
Olympiad,  that  is,  b.c.  753. 

Modern  writers  follow  the  more  convenient  method  of  calculating 
events  by  the  year  before  Christ,  expressed  by  the  letters  B.C.,  and 
after  Christ,  as  expressed  by  the  letters  A.D. 


Ancient  History. 


B.C.  1261?  Hercules. 

776?  Lycurgus.  First  Olympiad. 

753.  Romulus.  Rome  founded. 

594.  Solon  archon  and  legislator  at  Athens. 

509.  Expulsion  of  the  Tarquins.  Death  of  Junius  Brutus. 
490.  Miltiades.  Battle  of  Marathon. 

480.  Leonidas.  Thermopylae. 


114 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


B.C. 


480. 
444. 
439. 
431-404. 
404. 
399. 
356. 
336. 
323. 
264-241. 

218-201. 

183. 

149-146. 


146. 

60. 

44. 

A.D.  272-337. 

325. 

330. 

434. 

444. 

451. 

453. 

476. 


Themistocles.  Salamis. 

Pericles. 

Athens  at  the  height  of  its  glory. 

The  Peloponnesian  War. 

Death  of  Alcibiades. 

Death  of  Socrates. 

Birth  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Assassination  of  Philip,  and  accession  of  Alexander. 
Death  of  Alexander. 

First  Punic  War. 

Duilius  and  Regulus. 

Second  Punic  War. 

Hannibal. 

Death  of  Hannibal. 

Third  Punic  War. 

Scipio  Africanus  Junior. 

Destruction  of  Carthage. 

The  First  Triumvirate. 

Pompey.  Caesar.  Crassus. 

Murder  of  Caesar  on  the  ides  of  March. 

Constantine  the  Great. 

The  First  General  Council  of  Nice. 

Constantinople  becomes  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
empire. 

Attila  and  Bleda  become  kings  of  the  Huns. 

Attila,  sole  king. 

Defeat  of  Attila  on  the  Cataulanian  Fields. 

Death  of  Attila. 

Odoacer,  king  of  Italy. 

Fall  of  the  Western  empire. 


II.  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


II 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


JUSTINIAN. 


[483-565 


In  the  fifth  year  of  the  reign  of  Justinian  the  terrible  sedi- 
tion, known  as  the  Nika , that  is,  u Vanquish,”  broke  out  at  r532 
Constantinople.  There  were  two  factions  in  the  Circus, 
or  Hippodrome,  called  from  the  colors  they  wore,  the  Blues  and 
the  Greens,  which  gave  their  names  to  two  strong  and  irrecon- 
cilable political  parties.  The  people  were  divided  in  their  at- 
tachment, and  even  the  court  favored  this  or  that  side.  The 
outburst  of  the  sedition  was  extremely  violent,  the  city  was  in 
flames,  murder  raged  in  the  streets,  a counter-emperor  was 
elected,  and  Justinian  contemplated  flight.  After  it  had  raged 
for  five  days,  the  tumult  was  suppressed  by  the  savage  energy 
of  Belisarius,  who  entered  the  Hippodrome  with  3,000  veterans, 
and  caused  the  indiscriminate  massacre  of  30,000  persons. 

After  the  suppression  of  the  Nika,  the  emperor  began  to 
think  of  conquest.  He  dispatched  Belisarius  with  an  army  of 
15,000  into  North  Africa  to  recover  from  the  Vandals 
the  province  which  about  a century  before  they  had 
wrested  from  the  Western  empire,  on  the  plea,  that  the  East- 
ern empire,  as  heir  of  the  Western,  might  urge  a lawful  claim. 

When  Belisarius  went  into  Africa,  Gelimer  was  king  of  the 
Vandals,  who,  after  three  generations  in  the  luxurious  prosperity 
of  a warm  climate,  had  become  too  weak  to  resist  the  impetuous 


[429 


116 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


assault  of  the  Romans,  who  entered  the  city  of  Carthage 


533] 


amid  the  acclamations  of  her  people.  Gelimer  was  com- 


pelled to  flee  to  the  mountains  of  Numidia,  and  entered 
the  strong  and  inaccessible  place  of  Papua.  Pharas,  an  officer 
of  Belisarius,  laid  siege  to  the  place,  trusting  to  conquer  by 
famine  the  resolute  obstinacy  of  the  king,  who,  in  the  ex- 
tremity of  his  distress,  wrote  a letter  to  the  humane  Pharas,  in 
which  he  begged  him  to  send  him  a harp,  a sponge,  and  a loaf 
of  bread ; the  harp,  to  sing  to  it  the  story  of  his  sorrows ; the 
sponge,  to  dry  up  his  tears ; and  the  loaf,  to  still  his  hunger. 
His  request  was  granted,  but  the  severity  of  the  siege  was  not 
relaxed,  and  Gelimer  was  forced  to  surrender.  Belisarius  led 
him  in  triumph  to  Constantinople,  and  the  king  of  the  Vandals 
drew  comfort  from  repeating  on  that  humiliating  occasion  the 
1 words  of  the  wise  king,  “Vanity  of  vanities!  All  is 
vanity  ! ” Thus  ended  the  kingdom  of  the  Vandals,  and 
became  a province  of  the  Eastern  empire. 

Encouraged  by  the  brilliant  success  of  the  African  expedi- 


535] 


tion,  Justinian  in  the  next  year  undertook  the  task  of 


expelling  from  Italy  the  Ostrogoths,  who,  upon  the  de- 
feat of  Odoaeer,  had  established  themselves  in  the  Peninsula, 
and,  under  the  victorious  lead  of  Theodoric,  founded  an  empire 
which  extended  from  Sicily  to  the  Danube,  and  from  Sirmium 
to  the  Atlantic. 

Belisarius  with  an  army  of  7,000  invaded  and  subdued  Sicily, 
and  speedily  entered  Italy.  The  smaller  towns  of  Lower  Ital}T 
offered  no  resistance.  Naples  was  ?r.rriecl  by  storm,  and  Rome, 
-n  glad  of  the  departure  of  the  Goths,  opened  her  gates  to 
the  victorious  lieutenant  of  Justinian. 

The  Goths,  however,  had  not  departed  for  good,  but  returned 
and  besieged  the  city  with  a colossal  army  for  more  than  a }Tear, 
during  which  not  less  than  one-third  of  their  number  was  de- 
stroyed in  frequent  and  bloody  combats.  The  genius  of  Beli- 
sarius finally  compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege,  and  Vitiges 
their  kins;  to  seek  the  shelter  of  the  walls  and  morasses  of 


533-565.] 


JUSTINIAN. 


117 


[546 


Ravenna.  In  that  impregnable  stronghold  he  might  have  in- 
definitely protracted  the  struggle,  but  he  consented  to  capitu- 
late and  join  Belisarius  on  his  return  to  Constantinople,  to 
which  envy,  under  the  thinly  veiled  pretext  of  necessity,  had 
summoned  him.  u The  remnant  of  the  Gothic  war,”  said  the 
official  letter  of  recall,  u was  no  longer  worthy  of  his  presence  : 
a gracious  sovereign  was  impatient  to  reward  his  service,  and 
to  consult  his  wisdom ; and  he  alone  was  capable  of  defending 
the  East  against  the  innumerable  armies  of  Persia.” 

The  departure  of  Belisarius  was  the  signal  of  a tumultuous 
rising  of  the  Ostrogoths  so  strong  and  vital  that  they  speedily 
recovered  almost  the  whole  of  Italy  under  the  lead  of  the 
youthful  Totila,  a name  which  in  the  Gothic  tongue  signifies 
deathless.  Even  Rome  had  fallen  ; her  walls  had  been 
razed,  and  her  inhabitants  expelled. 

The  incompetency  of  the  Roman  generals  induced  the  suspi- 
cious Justinian  to  intrust  the  conduct  of  the  Gothic  war  to 
Belisarius  ; but  the  army  placed  under  his  command  was  insuffi- 
cient, and  after  five  years  of  ineffectual  warfare,  which,  however 
shed  the  lustre  of  consummate  skill  on  his  generalship,  he 
craved  and  obtained  leave  to  return  to  Constantinople. 

Once  more,  after  the  lapse  of  ten  }^ears,  Belisarius  triumphed 
by  his  skill  over  the  Bulgarians,  who  had  threatened  the  capi- 
tal. In  consequence  of  the  false  charge  of  his  share  in  a con- 
spiracy against  the  life  of  Justinian,  the  veteran  hero  was 
deprived  of  his  fortune,  and  confined  a prisoner  in  his  own 
house  for  the  space  of  six  months.  The  establishment  of  his 
innocence  restored  him  to  freedom  and  honor,  but  he 
died  soon  after,  and  the  ungrateful  emperor  rewarded  his 
long,  faithful,  and  glorious  service  not  with  a monument  worthy 
of  his  fame,  but  with  the  confiscation  of  his  property. 

The  story  that  he  was  deprived  of  sight,  and  wandered 
through  the  streets  of  Constantinople,  begging,  u Give  a penny 
to  Belisarius  the  general ! ” is  a poetical  myth,  possibly  designed 
to  set  forth  the  glaring  ingratitude  of  Justinian. 


[548 


[565 


118 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


552] 


553] 


After  the  recall  of  Belisarius,  Narses  at  the  head  of  a pow- 
erful army  was  sent  to  Italy.  Though  small  in  stature,  and  of 
a feeble  frame,  he  was  a man  of  great  intellectual  strength 
and  military  skill.  On  the  field  of  Tagiuae  he  met  the  Goths, 
and  defeated  them;  6,000  of  their  number  were  slain 
without  merc}T,  among  them  the  brave  and  heroic  Totila. 
The  Goths  carried  off  his  body,  but  the  Romans  sent  his  jew- 
elled hat  and  his  blood-stained  robe  to  Justinian  as  tokens  of 
victory. 

Narses  entered  Rome,  but  soon  set  out  to  meet  the  Goths, 
who  led  by  Teias,  their  newly  chosen  king,  were  assem- 
bled in  force  at  Cumae.  A terrible  and  decisive  battle 
was  fought.  The  courage  of  the  Goths  was  prodigious,  and 
the  conduct  of  Teias  brilliantly  heroic.  Like  another  Leonidas 
he  stood  with  a lance  in  his  right  hand,  and  a buckler  in  his 
left,  slaying  the  foremost  of  his  assailants  with  the  one,  and 
warding  off  the  blows  that  rained  upon  him,  with  the  other. 
The  weight  of  twelve  javelins  which  hung  from  his  buckler, 
after  a combat  of  many  hours,  had  fatigued  his  left  arm,  and 
he  called,  without  suspending  his  blows,  for  another  buckler. 
In  the  change,  a mortal  dart  entered  his  side,  and  he  fell.  His 
death  inflamed  the  Goths  to  more  desperate  resistance,  and 
they  held  out  until  the  evening  of  the  second  day.  On  the 
morning  of  the  third,  convinced  u that  heaven  had  not  destined 
them  to  rule  Italy,”  they  accepted  the  honorable  terms  proposed 
by  Narses,  either  to  remain  in  Italy  as  the  soldiers  and  subjects 
of  Justinian,  or  to  depart  with  part  of  their  private  possessions 
to  another  country. 

n The  last  remnants  of  the  Goths  were  subdued  in  the 

554 

following  year,  wrhen  the  overthrow  of  the  Gothic  mon- 
archy was  completed,  and  Italy  was  debased  into  a province  of 
the  Eastern  empire.  The  province  was  called  the  Exarchate,  and 
the  throne  of  the  Gothic  kings  was  filled  by  the  exarchs  of 
Ravenna.  Narses,  the  first  and  most  powerful  of  the  exarchs, 
governed  the  entire  kingdom  of  Italy  for  fifteen  years. 


529-565.] 


JUSTINIAN. 


119 


His  administration,  though  strong  and  effective,  could  not 


shield  him  from  the  effects  of  his  avarice  and  oppression. 


[567 


The  fear  of  a revolt  gave  color  to  the  efforts  of  his  ene- 
mies, who  procured  from  Justin  II.,  the  nephew  and  successor  of 
Justinian,  his  removal  from  office.  The  story  runs  that  the  man- 
date of  his  recall  contained  the  insulting  message  of  the  empress, 
6 4 he  might  return  to  the  distaff  as  better  suited  to  him  than  the 
exercise  of  arms,”  which  drew  from  him  the  indignant  reply, 
u I will  spin  her  such  a thread  as  she  shall  not  easily  unravel.” 
He  did  not  return  to  Constantinople,  but  went  to  Naples,  and, 
although  at  the  instance  of  the  pope  he  made  his  peace  with 
the  emperor,  he  is  credited  with  having  invited  the  Lombards  to 
invade  Itaty. 

The  emperor  Justinian  died  a.d.  565.  As  a man  he  was  the 
superior  of  most  of  the  emperors  in  many  private  and  r 
public  virtues,  which  would  have  yet  been  greater  but 
for  the  influence  of  Theodora  his  wife,  whom  he  raised  from  the 
dubious  notoriety  of  a theatrical  life  to  the  imperial  throne. 
Always  ambitious,  fond  of  admiration,  and  the  dupe  of  flat- 
terers, he  became  towards  the  end  of  his  life  not  only  avaricious, 
but  jealous  and  exacting.  He  was  not  a soldier,  but  owed  his 
conquests  to  the  genius  of  Belisarius,  to  whom  he  meted  out  the 
reward  of  base  and  heartless  ingratitude.  Those  conquests 
have  crumbled  into  dust,  but  he  has  achieved  more  lasting  fame 
by  his  merits  in  the  reformation  of  the  laws. 

He  commissioned  Tribonian,  his  minister,  to  frame  a new 
Code  of  laws  from  the  imperial  constitutions,  to  collect  r 
the  commentaries  of  those  laws  by  the  most  learned 
law}rers,  known  as  the  Pandects , and  to  set  forth  a systematic 
treatise  on  the  laws,  called  the  Institutes . These  three 
great  works,  the  Code,  the  Pandects , and  the  Institutes , 
were  set  forth  as  the  Law  of  the  Empire,  and  form  what  is 
called  the  Corpus  Juris , that  is,  the  Body,  or  Collection  of  the 
Laws. 

In  his  reign  were  also  executed  many  extensive  public  works, 


120 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


such  as  vast  lines  of  fortifications,  numerous  bridges,  aqueducts, 

. hospitals,  and  churches,  throughout  the  various  provinces  of  his 
empire.  Perhaps  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  buildings  he 
erected  is  the  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  which, 
converted  by  the  Turks  into  a mosque,  remains,  at  least  in  part, 
as  a standing  monument  of  his  imperial  magnificence.  Ten 
thousand  workmen  were  engaged  in  its  erection  for  six  years. 
When,  on  the  day  of  its  consecration,  Justinian  beheld  it  in  the 
splendor  of  its  glory,  he  exclaimed  with  devout  vanity,  “I 
have  vanquished  thee,  O Solomon  ! ” 

His  reign  is  also  distinguished  by  the  introduction  of  the  silk 
industry  into  Europe.  Until  then  the  manufactured  article  was 
brought  by  caravans  from  the  far  East,  and  commanded  a price 
equal  to  its  weight  in  gold.  During  his  wars  with  Persia  the 
supply  was  entirely  suspended,  and  various  plans  for  obtaining 
the  fabric  were  under  consideration,  when  there  arrived  at  Con- 
stantinople two  Persian  monks,  who  had  been  in  China,  and  felt 
confident,  from  what  they  had  observed,  that  although  the  im- 
portation of  the  silkworm  was  impracticable,  that  of  their  eggs 
presented  no  difficulties.  The  emperor  encouraged  their  views, 
and  at  his  bidding  the  monks  underwent  the  perilous  venture  of 
a second  visit  to  China.  They  deceived  the  natives  as  to  the 
real  purport  of  their  journey  by  concealing  the  coveted  eggs  in 
hollow  canes,  and  returned  with  them  in  safety.  Under  their 
direction,  in  due  time,  they  were  artificially  hatched,  and  fed  on 
mulberry  leaves.  The  insects  throve  and  multiplied,  trees  also 
were  planted  for  their  benefit,  and  in  the  next  reign,  Eastern 
ambassadors  acknowledged  that  the  Greeks  were  not  inferior 
to  the  Chinese  in  the  culture  of  the  insects,  and  the  manufacture 
of  silk. 

REFERENCES. 

Gibbon,  “Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,”  vol.  IV.  pp. 
41-386,  Boston  ed.  1854;  Milman,  “Latin  Christianity,”  vol.  I.  pp. 
449  to  end,  ed.  N.Y.  1860. 


483-565.] 


JUSTINIAN . 


121 


NOTE. 

Belisarius.  The  account  of  the  disgrace  and  restoration  of  Belisa- 
rius  given  in  the  text  agrees  with  the  genuine  original  account  con- 
tained in  the  Fragment  of  John  Malala  (vol.  II.  pp.  231-243),  and 
the  Chronicle  of  Theophanes  (pp.  194-204). 

The  revival  of  the  fable  by  Lord  Mahon,  in  his  Life  of  Belisarius, 
rests  on  the  dubious  authority  of  an  unquoted  anonymous  writer  of 
the  eleventh  century  and  of  Tzetzes  of  the  twelfth  century. 

The  theory  of  Alemannus,  adopted  by  Le  Beau,  and  favored  by 
Milman,  that  the  case  of  Belisarius  was  confounded  with  that  of  John 
of  Cappadocia,  who  was  thus  reduced  to  beggary,  commends  itself  to 
my  judgment. 

A statue  in  the  Villa  Borghese  at  Rome,  in  a sitting  posture,  with 
an  open  hand,  which  is  often  described  as  representing  Belisarius,  is 
in  the  judgment  of  Winckelmann,  one  of  the  most  competent  art 
critics,  that  of  Augustus  in  the  act  of  propitiating  Nemesis.  See 
Suetonius  “in  Auqust.”  c.  91,  and  Winckelmann,  “Hist,  de  l’Art,”  vol. 
III.  p.  266. 

The  French  romance  of  M.  de  Marmontel  repeats  the  fabulous 
account,  and  Madame  de  Genlis  in  her  charming  “ Belisaire  ” makes 
Narses  the  author  of  her  hero’s  blindness,  although  she  gives  in  a note 
a summary  of  the  true  history. 

The  celebrated  painting  of  Van  Dyck,  which  used  to  be  in  the  duke 
of  Devonshire’s  Gallery  at  Chiswick,  represents  Belisarius  in  a sitting 
posture,  attended  by  a youthful  guide,  holding  up  his  helmet  as  an 
alms-basin,  while  a soldier  sadly  gazes  upon  the  melancholy  fate  of 
his  old  general. 


122 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


569-632] 


MOHAMMED. 


The  city  of  Mecca,  in  the  peninsula  of  Arabia,  was  the  birth- 


569] 


place  of  Mohammed.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Abdallah 


and  Amina.  His  father  died  when  he  was  only  two 
months  old,  and  left  him  but  five  camels  and  an  Ethiopic  slave. 
The  death  of  his  mother,  which  occurred  in  his  sixth  year,  made 
him  a full  orphan.  His  uncle,  Abu  Taleb,  a respectable  mer- 
chant, gave  him  a home,  and  brought  him  up  with  the  intention 
of  following  mercantile  pursuits.  He  was  his  companion  on  a 
business  journey  into  Syria.  In  his  twenty-fifth  year  he  entered 
into  the  service  of  Cadijah,  the  widow  of  a wealthy  merchant, 
where  his  business  capacity  and  fidelity  so  endeared  him  to  his 
mistress  that  she  gave  him  her  hand  and  her  fortune. 

The  religion  of  the  Arabs  at  that  time  was  the  paganism  prev- 
alent in  a large  part  of  Asia,  and  consisted  in  the  worship  of 
the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  fixed  stars.  They  acknowledged 
one  Supreme  God,  but  paid  divine  honor  to  the  heavenly 
bodies,  to  angels  and  their  images,  regarding  them  as  inferior 
deities  and  their  mediators  with  the  most  high  God.  But  they 
were  also  idolaters  and  worshipped  not  only  the  statues  of  men, 
but  images  of  animals,  such  as  lions,  horses,  eagles,  etc.,  and 
even  stones.  Some  Arabs  believed  neither  a creation  past,  nor 
a resurrection  to  come  ; others  believed  both,  and  provided  that 
when  they  died,  their  camel  should  be  tied  to  their  tomb  and 
left  to  perish  without  food  or  drink,  to  accompany  them  to  the 
other  world,  lest  they  should  be  obliged  at  the  resurrection  to 
go  on  foot.  Some  believed  that  the  blood  near  a dead  person’s 
brain  became  a bird  which  once  in  a century  visited  his  tomb, 
while  others  held  that  the  soul  of  one  unjustly  slain  entered  into 


569-632.] 


MOHAMMED . 


123 


that  bird,  which  continually  cries  “ Oscuni,  Oscuni,”  that  is, 
“Give  me  to  drink,”  meaning  the  murderer’s  blood,  till  his 
death  be  avenged,  and  that  then  it  would  fly  away. 

In  and  about  the  Caaba  of  Mecca  were  not  less  than  360 
idols  ; there  is  no  doubt  that  the  cruel  practice  of  human  sacri- 
fices was  long  preserved  among  the  Arabs,  and  tradition  says 
that  even  Abdallah,  the  father  of  Mohammed,  had  been  devoted 
to  death,  but  ransomed  by  a hundred  camels. 

The  religious  usages  of  the  Arabs  were  as  various  as  their 
tribes,  who  lived  in  perpetual  feuds,  and  thus  sapped  the 
strength  of  the  nation.  The  need  of  a savior  and  deliverer  was 
universally  felt,  and  Mohammed  in  musing  on  the  low  estate  of 
his  people  and  county  deemed  it  to  be  his  mission  to  raise  them 
by  preaching  to  them  the  doctrine  of  one  God. 

On  his  journeys,  and  at  Mecca,  where  a great  commercial  fair 
was  held,  he  had  abundant  opportunity  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  faith  and  practice  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  and 
reached  the  conclusion  that  the  true  religion  had  suffered  at  the 
hands  of  both.  He  resolved  to  restore  the  faith  of  Abraham, 
the  patriarch  and  progenitor  of  the  Arabs,  and  proclaim  it  as  the 
only  true  religion.  Abraham,  being  the  father  of  Islimael,  from 
whom  the  Arabs  claim  descent,  is  their  patriarch,  and  Mohammed 
was  of  the  race  of  Ishmael. 

Mohammed  was  forty  years  old  when  he  assumed  the  title  of 

a prophet,  and  proclaimed  his  revelations.  It  had  been  his 

custom  for  many  years  to  spend  a month  in  the  solitude  of  a cave 

in  Mount  Hara,  not  far  from  Mecca.  It  was  there  that  r 

. . [609 

the  angel  Gabriel  appeared  unto  him  and  told  him  that 

he  was  appointed  the  apostle  or  prophet  of  God.  This  he  told 
his  wife,  who  received  the  news  with  great  joy  and  told  it  her 
cousin,  who  shared  her  belief  and  enthusiasm.  Other  converts 
followed  in  the  persons  of  Zeid,  his  purchased  servant,  whose 
faith  he  rewarded  by  giving  him  his  freedom,  and  of  his  youth- 
ful cousin  Ali,  then  only  nine  years  old.  His  next  convert  was 
Abu  Beer,  a man  of  great  authority  among  the  Koreish,  whose 


124 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


example  was  followed  by  six  of  the  most  influential  men  of 
Mecca. 

The  mission  of  Mohammed  was  kept  secret  for  three  years, 
61 2l  announced  to  the  world  in  the  fourth  year,  on  the 
occasion  of  a banquet  at  which  about  forty  of  his  relatives 
appeared.  After  they  had  partaken  of  the  lamb  and  the  milk 
he  had  provided,  Mohammed  addressed  them  thus:  “ Friends 
and  kinsmen,  I offer  you,  and  I alone  can  offer,  the  most  pre- 
cious of  gifts,  the  treasures  of  this  world,  and  of  the  world  to 
come.  God  has  commanded  me  to  call  you  to  His  service. 
Who  among  you  will  join  me  and  become  my  brother,  and 
vizier?  ” All  were  silent ; at  last  the  boy  Ali,  then  in  his  four- 
teenth year,  arose,  saying,  uO  prophet,  I am  the  man,”  and 
threatened  to  destroy  all  who  should  oppose  him.  The  braggart 
speech  excited  the  derisive  laughter  of  the  company. 

Abu  Taleb,  the  father  of  the  youthful  and  belligerent  Ali, 
tried  to  make  Mohammed  give  up  his  foolish  and  dangerous 
purpose.  But  he  was  deaf  to  his  counsels  and  entreaties,  and 
cut  them  off  by  the  declaration,  that  though  they  set  the  sun 
against  him  on  his  right  hand,  and  the  moon  on  his  left,  they 
would  not  divert  him  from  his  course. 

In  the  seventh  year  of  his  mission  he  had  to  mourn  the  death 
of  Abu  Taleb,  and  of  Cadijah  his  wife.  Deprived  of 
their  support,  Mohammed  had  now  to  face  the  opposition 
of  powerful  and  fanatical  enemies,  and  to  recruit  his  converts 
from  the  strangers,  who  on  mercantile  or  religious  errands  were 
wont  to  flock  to  Mecca  in  great  numbers. 

The  tribe  of  the  Koreish,  to  which  he  belonged,  was  bitterly 
hostile  to  him.  They  were  the  rulers  of  Mecca,  and  had  the 
custody  of  the  Caaba , the  most  venerable  sanctuary  of  the 
pagan  Arabs,  where  among  numerous  other  objects  of  worship, 
was  preserved  the  black  stone,  which  was  said  to  have  been 
sent  by  God  from  heaven.  The  Koreishites,  who  drew  a large 
revenue  from  the  Caaba , dreaded  the  rise  of  the  new  movement 
as  hostile  to  the  old  idolatrous  religion,  and  dangerous  to  their 


619] 


612-622] 


MOHAMMED . 


125 


interest.  They  saw  in  every  new  convert  to  the  religion  of 
Mohammed  a renewed  cause  of  their  hatred  and  enmity,  which 
at  last  became  so  violent  that  he  was  compelled  to  leave  Mecca, 
and  flee  to  Medina. 

The  year  of  his  flight  marks  the  era  of  the  Hegira , a word 
which  in  Arabic  signifies  the  flight.  It  is  still  in  use  among  the 


Mohammedan  nations,  who  regard  it  as  the  beginning  of 


[622 


their  religion,  and  date  events  from  it  as  we  do  from  the 
year  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  Strictly  speaking,  the  first  Moham- 
medan New  Year  fell  on  Friday,  July  16,  a.d.  622. 

At  Medina,  where  he  had  a number  of  adherents,  Mohammed 
was  kindly  received,  and  on  the  day  just  named  entered  “ the 
city  of  the  prophet  ” as  a conqueror  crowned  with  victory  rather 
than  as  a fugitive  or  an  exile.  The  number  of  his  followers 
now  grew  apace,  and  he  established  himself  by  erecting  the  first 
mosque,  and  building  a modest  house. 

Legend  says  that  the  angel  Gabriel  had  revealed  to  the 
prophet  the  secret  of  the  conspiracy  at  Mecca  ; that  he  met  the 
conspirators,  or  their  messengers,  on  their  errand  of  death  as  he 
was  leaving  his  house,  and  threw  at  them  a handful  of  dust, 
which  struck  them  blind,  and  enabled  him  to  pass  unhurt 
through  their  midst.  But  the  pursuers  hounded  his  steps,  and 
as  they  drew  near,  he  sought  concealment  in  a cave.  When 
they  came  to  the  cave,  they  found  its  entrance  closed  with  a 
spider’s  web  and  the  nest  of  a dove  containing  two  eggs.  These 
tokens  convinced  them  that  no  one  could  have  recently  entered 
the  cave,  and  they  abandoned  the  pursuit. 

Mohammed,  overwhelmed  by  this  wonderful  deliverance, 
showed  his  gratitude  by  enjoining  his  followers  not  to  kill  a 
spider,  and  to  respect  the  dove  as  a sacred  bird. 

At  Medina  he  soon  felt  strong  enough  to  assume  the  exercise 
of  the  royal  and  priestly  office.  It  was  his  mission,  he  said,  to 
establish  the  new  religion,  peaceably  if  he  might,  but  with  the 
sword  if  he  must ; idolatry  and  infidelity  must  be  destroyed,  and 
it  was  decreed  that  his  believing  hosts  should  conquer  the  world . 


126 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


630] 


To  believe  was  to  enjoy  and  possess.  “ The  sword,”  he  said, 
c 4 is  the  key  of  heaven  and  of  hell ; a drop  of  blood  shed  in  the 
cause  of  God,  a night  spent  in  arms,  is  of  more  avail  than  two 
months  of  prayer  and  fasting  ; whosoever  falls  in  battle,  his  sins 
are  forgiven ; at  the  day  of  judgment  his  wounds  shall  be 
resplendent  as  vermilion,  and  fragrant  as  musk  ; and  the  loss  of 
his  limbs  shall  be  supplied  by  the  wings  of  angels  and  cherubim.” 
Fate,  moreover,  he  taught,  was  unchangeably  fixed,  and  no  man 
could  escape  his  destiny;  if  he  were  ordained  to  die  in  his  bed, 
he  would  be  safe  and  invulnerable  in  the  heat  of  battle. 

These  promises,  and  the  assurance  of  a large  share  of  the 
spoils  of  conquest,  fired  the  enthusiasm  and  promoted  the  cour- 
age of  the  followers  of  Mohammed.  Victory  was  inscribed  upon 
his  banner,  and  the  assured  certainty  of  it  enabled  his  hundreds 
to  discomfit  thousands  of  their  foes.  The  whole  of  Arabia 
was  overrun  and  subdued,  and  at  last,  he  took  Mecca, 
and  broke  in  pieces  the  360  idols  of  the  Caaba. 

The  Caaba,  purified  and  adorned,  he  made  the  sanctuary  of 
Islam,  and  enacted  a perpetual  law  that  no  unbeliever  should 
defile  by  his  presence  the  territory  of  the  holy  city.  His  last 
solemn  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  he  made  at  the  head  of  not  less  than 
40,000  of  the  faithful. 

Soon  after,  he  returned  to  Medina,  and  died,  sixty-three  years 
old,  as  some  say,  from  the  effects  of  poison,  but  more  probably, 
from  an  attack  of  fever.  His  head  reclining  on  the  lap  of 
Ayesha,  the  best  beloved  of  his  wives,  and  his  eyes  raised 
towards  the  roof  of  the  house,  he  said  with  a faltering  voice  : 
June  8,  “ O God  ! — pardon  my  sins. — Yes  — I come  — among 
632  my  fellow-citizens  on  high,”  and  breathed  his  last. 

The  successors  of  Mohammed  who  extended  the  empire 
of  the  Arabs  or  Saracens  were  called  Califs,  or  Chalifs,  that 
is,  Successors.  From  Medina,  where  they  resided  first,  they 
moved  to  Damascus  in  Syria  (a.d.  673),  and  lastly  to  Bagdad 
on  the  Tigris  (a.d.  763).  Their  conquests  were  so  great  that 
for  several  centuries  their  empire  exceeded  that  of  Rome  in 


630-632.] 


MOHAMMED. 


127 


extent.  Syria,  as  far  as  the  Caucasus,  Persia,  Egypt,  and  North 
Africa  obeyed  their  sway  to  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  they  invaded  Spain,  and 
expelled  the  Visigoths  from  that  country. 

His  body  was  placed  in  an  iron  coffin,  and  interred  on  the 
same  spot  where  he  died  in  the  house  of  Ayesha,  which  is  now 
enclosed  within  the  mosque,  enlarged  by  the  chalif  Walid,  where 
the  innumerable  pilgrims  to  Mecca  stop  to  honor  the  memory 
of  the  departed  prophet. 

Mohammed  is  said  to  have  been  of  middling  size  and  robust 
of  frame.  His  head  was  unusually  large ; he  wore  his  hair, 
which  was  curly,  long,  and  his  beard  came  down  to  the  collar- 
bone. His  face,  of  a light  tawny  color,  was  oval,  and  distin- 
guished by  a broad  forehead,  long  but  narrow  eyebrows,  long 
e}^elashes,  and  sparkling  jet-black  eyes.  An  aquiline  nose, 
thin  lips  and  white  teeth,  the  incisors  asunder,  complete  the  de- 
scription of  his  countenance.  He  had  a stoop  and  was  slightly 
humpbacked.  A round,  fleshy  .tumor  on  his  back,  covered  with 
hair,  was  regarded  by  his  devout  followers  as  the  seal  of  his 
mission.  His  gait  was  heavy,  and,  if  he  looked  back,  he  turned 
the  whole  body.  The  whole  of  his  presence  was  majestic,  and 
the  magnetism  of  his  eloquence  proverbial.  His  manner  was 
grave  and  affable ; his  wit  ready,  his  memory  tenacious,  his 
imagination  sublime,  his  judgment  clear,  and  his  courage  prodi- 
gious. Simple  and  frugal  in  his  habits,  he  deemed  the  loss  of 
earthly  goods  of  small  moment.  A leather  pouch  filled  with 
date  leaves  was  his  pillow,  and  an  Arabian  cloak  his  bed. 
Barley-bread,  dates,  milk,  and  honey  were  his  ordinary  food. 

The  summary  of  the  teaching  of  Mohammed  is  expressed  in 
the  sentence,  u There  is  only  one  God  and  Mohammed  is  His 
prophet,”  of  which  the  first  part  is  as  true  as  the  second  is 
false.  He  acknowledged  the  divine  mission  of  Moses  and 
Christ,  though  in  a lower  sense  than  his  own. 

The  necessary  duties  enjoined  upon  the  Moslem  include  five 
daily  ablutions,  and  on  the  principle  that  the  practice  of  reli- 


128 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


gion  is  founded  on  cleanliness,  the  very  ground  or  the  piece  of 
carpet  on  which  he  prays  are  required  to  be  scrupulously  clean. 
Every  good  Moslem  has  therefore  a prayer-carpet,  called  Seg- 
gadeh.  He  is  required  to  pray  five  times  in  every  24  hours, 
and  to  say  his  prayers  with  his  face  turned  in  the  direction  of 
Mecca.  It  is  his  duty  to  abstain  during  the  entire  month  of 
Ramadan,  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  from  eating,  drinking,  smok- 
ing, bathing,  and  all  unnecessary  worldly  pleasure.  He  is  also 
bound  to  give  alms  to  the  extent  of  one-tenth  of  his  income, 
and  enjoined  to  make  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  The  neglect 
of  that  duty,  in  the  opinion  of  all  good  Moslems,  is  so  dreadful 
that  the  delinquent  u might  as  well  die  a Jew  or  a Christian. ” 

Prayer,  which  Mohammed  was  wont  to  call  u the  pillar  of  re- 
ligion ” and  “the  key  to  paradise,'’  according  to  him  “would 
carry  a man  half  way  to  God,  fasting  would  take  him  to  the 
door  of  His  palace,  and  alms  would  procure  him  admission.” 

The  sacred  book  of  the  Moslems  is  called  the  Koran , that  is, 
The  Reading,  or  The  Book,  and  the}7  designate  their  faith  or 
religion  by  the  word  Islam , which  means  the  entire  surrender 
of  body  and  soul  to  God,  his  will  and  service,  and  to  all  the 
articles  of  faith,  commandments,  and  ordinances  revealed  to 
Mohammed,  and  enjoined  by  him.  The  word  Moslem , cor- 
rupted into  Musalman,  or  Musulman,  is  derived  from  the  same 
root,  and  denotes  believers  who  have  found  peace,  by  accepting 
the  Islam  as  just  explained.  Their  priests  or  ministers  are 
called  Imaums,  their  high-priest  bears  the  name  of  Mufti , and 
their  monks  are  known  as  Dervishes. 

Friday  is  the  Moslem’s  weekly  day  of  rest,  which,  though  set 
apart  to  religious  worship,  does  not  prevent  their  spending  the 
remainder  of  the  day  either  in  business  or  recreation. 

The  Moslems  are  forbidden,  among  other  things,  the  use  of 
wine  and  all  intoxicating  drink ; to  eat  swine’s  flesh ; to  gam- 
ble ; to  take  usury ; and  to  practise  idolatry  in  any  form. 

The  Koran  permits  the  practice  of  polygamy,  and  it  is  curious 
that,  though  a Moslem  may  marry  a Christian  or  Jewish  wife, 


569-632.] 


MOHAMMED . 


129 


a Mohammedan  woman  must  not,  under  any  circumstances, 
marry  an  unbeliever. 


REFERENCES. 


Gibbon,  “History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,” 
vol.  V.  pp.  74-168,  Milman’s  ed.,  N.Y.  1856;  Weil,  “Mohammed  the 
Prophet,”  Stuttgart,  1843 ; Sprenger,  “ Life  of  Mohammed  from 
Original  Sources,”  Allahabad,  1856;  “The  Koran,”  Sale’s  edition, 
Philadelphia,  1856. 


130 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


682-735] 


BONIFACE. 


496] 


About  the  time  when  the  religion  of  Mohammed  displaced 
Christianity  in  Syria,  Eg}^pt,  North  Africa,  and  Spain,  Chris- 
tian missionaries  from  England  successfully  established  it  in 
Germany. 

The  Franks,  the  conquerors  of  Gaul,  pushed  the  Visigoths  to 
the  Pyrenees,  made  the  Burgundians  tributary,  subdued  the 
country  of  the  Alemanni  and  the  Thuringians,  and  established 
an  empire  which,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  extended 
from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Saale,  and  from  the  North  Sea 
to  the  Alps.  They  accepted  Christianity  at  an  early 
period.  Irish  missionaries  had  labored  among  the  Alemanni  and 
Bavarians,  — that  is,  in  South  Germany,  — and  planted  there  the 
Christian  religion  in  the  course  of  the  seventh  ceuLury.  But 
the  central  and  northern  regions  of  G(  rmany  adhered  obstinately 
to  the  pagan  worship  of  the  North. 

The  first  Christian  missionary  who  carried  Christianity  into 
that  part  of  Germany  was  Winfrid.  He  was  a West 
Saxon,  and  a native  of  Crediton  in  Devonshire.  At  an 
early  age  he  discovered  a strong  predilection  for  the  monastic 
profession,  and  an  invincible  desire  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the 
heathen.  After  a long  preparation  as  a teacher  and  a priest, 
accompanied  by  three  of  his  brethren,  he  set  out  for 
Friesland  (Frisia) , and  landed  there  at  a time  when  the 
country  was  distracted  by  war.  He  went  as  far  as  Utrecht, 
but  all  his  efforts  were  fruitless,  and  he  deemed  it  prudent  to 
return  to  his  monastery,  and  wait  for  a more  convenient  season. 

Convinced  that  the  success  of  his  efforts  depended  on  the 
patronage  and  support  of  those  in  power,  he  made  up  his  mind 


716] 


496-735.] 


BONIFACE. 


131 


to  secure  them  by  enlisting  the  approbation  and  sympa- 


[718 


[722 


thy  of  the  pope,  and  directed  his  steps  to  Rome. 

In  this  he  was  entirely  successful,  and,  charged  by  the  pope 
to  make  Germany  the  sphere  of  his  labors,  stopped  on  his 
way  with  Liutprand,  king  of  the  Lombards,  and  passed  into 
Bavaria  and  Thuringia,  where  he  spent  some  time  in  preaching 
to  the  people,  and  in  reforming  the  morals  of  the  ignorant 
clergy.  The  successes  of  the  Franks  in  Friesland  induced  him 
to  revisit  that  country,  and  he  passed  the  next  three  years 
with  the  aged  Willibrord,  at  Utrecht,  in  earnest  and  efficient 
missionary  labors. 

Eager  to  work  where  none  had  been  before,  he  returned  to 
Germany,  and  labored  under  severe  trials  among  the 
Hessians  and  Saxons  so  effectually,  that  after  a few 
years  he  could  point  to  a large  number  of  fervent  converts. 
The  fame  of  his  success  had  reached  Gregory  II.,  who  sum- 
moned the  missionary  to  Rome,  and  consecrated  him  r- 
bishop  of  Germany.  Clothed  with  this  dignity,  and  fur- 
nished  with  letters  of  commendation  to  the  Frankish  princes, 
he  returned  to  his  converts,  and  earned  golden  laurels 
by  the  judicious  zeal  with  which  he  furthered  the  work 
of  the  Gospel. 

He  was  a very  courageous  man,  and  understood  not  only 
how  to  preach,  but  to  act  at  the  right  time.  Near  the  village  of 
Geismar,  among  the  Hessians,  on  a high  mountain,  stood  a 
venerable  oak-tree  consecrated  to  Thor,  the  god  of  thunder, 
which  from  time  immemorial  was  visited  at  stated  seasons  by 
multitudes  of  the  superstitious  people  for  idolatrous  purposes. 
On  the  occasion  of  such  a festival,  when  the  people  had  flocked 
together  in  large  numbers  to  sacrifice  to  Thor,  Winfrid,  who  at 
his  consecration  had  received  the  name  of  Boniface,  that  is, 
the  Benefactor,  arrayed  in  his  episcopal  robes,  and  carrying  the 
pastoral  staff  in  his  hand,  suddenly  appeared  in  their  midst. 
Seizing  an  axe,  he  struck  the  tree  with  might}^  blows,  in  the 
name  of  Christ.  Loud  were  the  curses  of  the  pagans  at  this 


[724 


132 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


act  of  sacrilege,  and  their  cries  for  revenge.  They  thought 
that  their  mighty  god  would  protect  his  sacred  tree,  and  destroy 
the  impious  offender ; but  no  ill  ensued,  and  when  Boniface 
and  his  companions  had  wielded  the  axe  until  they  reached  the 
core,  the  mighty  tree  came  down  with  a tremendous  crash  and 
broke  into  four  pieces.  Seeing  that  the  bishop  stood  unhurt 
and  undaunted,  they  believed  him,  when  he  told  them  that  there 
was  no  such  god  as  Thor,  then  and  there  forswore  paganism, 
and  were  baptized.  Boniface  then  caused  the  oak  to  be  cut  up, 
and  ordered  the  wood  to  be  used  in  the  erection  of  a chapel 
which  he  consecrated  to  St.  Peter. 

The  apostolic  labors  of  Boniface  were  very  great.  At  his 
request  missionaries  came  out  from  England,  who  labored  under 
his  direction  with  singular  self-denial  and  zeal,  though  the 
bitter  hostility  of  the  pagan  tribes  not  only  destroyed  the  fruits 
of  their  labors,  but  endangered  their  lives.  By  one  such  incur- 
sion not  less  than  30  churches  were  levelled  with  the  ground. 

Boniface,  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  a permanent  supply  of 
missionaries  and  efficient  associates,  founded  quite  a number 
of  monasteries  and  convents.  His  first  foundation  was  a small 
cell ; then  arose  the  monasteries  at  Fritzlar  and  Amelburg,  and 
at  last,  the  magnificent  abbey  of  Fulda,  which  after  a few  years 
contained  as  many  as  400  monks. 

Convents  were  built  at  Bischofsheim,  Kissingen,  Heidenlieim, 
and  elsewhere.  The  labors  of  Boniface  were  not  only  religious, 
but  truly  civilizing.  His  monks  taught  the  people  agriculture 
and  useful  trades,  and  the  youth  to  read  and  write.  He  abol- 
ished slavery,  and  encouraged  the  building  of  hamlets  and 
villages.  The  monks  made  fabrics  of  wool  and  linen,  and  the 
nuns  were  wont  to  sew,  spin,  and  embroider.  The  clerg}', 
moreover,  instructed  mechanics  to  work  in  metal,  stone,  and 
wood,  and  thus  fostered  art. 

After  sometime  Boniface  was  made  archbishop,  or  metro- 
-j  politan,  of  the  whole  of  Germany,  and  in  that  capacity 
established  bishoprics  throughout  its  wide  extent,  wher- 


732-752] 


BONIFACE . 


133 


ever  in  his  judgment  they  were  required.  All  these  bishops 
were  under  his  jurisdiction,  and  he  and  they  were  bound  to 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  On  account  of  this 
widespread  and  long-continued  sphere  of  his  labors,  Boniface 
has  been  called  the  Apostle  of  Germany . 

Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  Boniface  fixed  his  residence  in 
the  city  of  Mentz,  and  at  the  request,  or  under  the  advice 
of  pope  Zachary,  crowned  Pepin,  the  mayor  of  the  r ^ 
palace,  king  of  the  Franks. 

The  sceptre  of  the  Franks  had  gradually  slipped  from  the 
feeble  grasp  of  the  Merovingian  kings  into  the  hands  of  Charles 
Martel  and  his  sons,  who  were  called  Mayors  of  the  Palace. 
The  king  himself  was  a mere  figure-head  who  was  once  a year 
exhibited  to  the  people,  and  the  mayor  of  the  palace  was  the 
real  ruler.  Pepin,  impatient  of  the  mockery  of  royalty,  asked 
the  bishop  of  Pome  to  decide  which  were  better,  either  that  he 
should  hold  the  office  and  name  of  king  who  wielded  the  kingly 
power,  or  that  the  office  and  the  name  should  be  enjoyed  by 
him  who  bore  the  name  but  had  no  power.  The  pope  decided 
that  it  seemed  to  him  better  that  the  office  and  name  of  king 
should  be  enjoyed  by  him  who  wielded  the  power.  Under  the 
influence  of  this  decision,  Pepin  sent  Childeric,  the  last  king  of 
the  race  of  Clovis,  to  the  monastery  of  Sithiu,  where  he  was 
shorn,  which  means,  that  by  becoming  a monk  he  was  deposed, 
and  Pepin  became  king. 

Not  long  after  this  important  event  the  aged  Boniface, 
accompanied  by  the  retinue  of  a bishop,  three  priests,  as  many 
deacons,  four  monks,  and  41  laymen,  undertook  a missionary 
journey  to  the  first  scene  of  his  labors  in  Friesland.  “By  his 
exhortations  thousands  of  the  idolaters  were  converted  and 
baptized.  The  new  converts  were  expected  to  appear  a few 
weeks  later,  on  the  eve  of  Whitsun-day  in  the  plain  of  Dockum, 
to  be  confirmed.  At  daybreak  Boniface  was  told  that  a body 
of  armed  Frisians  was  approaching.  The  laymen  were  pre- 
paring to  defend  themselves,  but  Boniface,  leaving  his  tent,  bade 


134 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


them  sheathe  their  swords  and  receive  the  martyr’s  crown.  He 
had  hardly  ceased  speaking,  when  the  pagans  rushed  upon  them, 
and  in  their  fury  slew  them  to  a man.  The  dreadful  news 
became  known  to  the  Christian  Frisians,  who  in  their  turn  fell 
upon  their  pagan  countrymen  and  avenged  in  their  blood  the 
July  5,  death  of  Boniface  and  his  companions.  Thus  died  the 
755  good  and  apostolic  Boniface.  His  remains  were  gathered 
up  and  removed  to  the  abbey  of  Fulda,  where  may  still  be 
seen  a copy  of  the  Gospels  written  by  him,  and  a leaf  stained 
with  his  blood. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  considered  Boniface  as  the  glory  of  their 
nation,  enrolled  his  name  in  the  calendar,  and  chose  him  for 
one  of  the  patrons  of  their  church. 


REFERENCES. 


Lingard,  “ Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,”  Baltimore, 
1857,  pp.  258-268;  Schmidt,  “History  of  the  Germans,”  Frankenthal, 
1792,  vol.  II. 


742-814.] 


CHARLEMAGNE . 


135 


CHARLEMAGNE. 


[742-814 


[768 

[771 


Pepin  the  Short  had  two  sons,  Charles  and  Carloman,  who 
upon  his  death  succeeded  jointly  to  the  throne.  Charles, 
at  the  time  of  his  accession,  was  twenty-six  years  old. 
Carloman  died  after  three  years,  and  Charles  became 
sole  king  of  the  Franks. 

The  grand  purpose  of  his  reign,  to  which  he  adhered  through- 
out, was  the  unification  of  all  the  nations  of  Western  Europe 
into  a Christian  empire. 

His  first  effort  in  this  direction  was  the  conversion  and  sub- 
jection of  the  Saxons,  a strong  and  belligerent  people,  that 
until  then  had  maintained  their  independence,  and  successfully 
resisted  the  hostile  attempts  of  other  nations.  Their  country 
in  the  north-western  part  of  Germany  was  covered  with  vast 
forests  and  morasses,  and  well  suited  to  their  habits  and  mode 
of  life.  They  were  troublesome  and  dangerous  neighbors,  and 
their  hatred  of  the  Franks  was  as  strong  as  that  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion. 

The  Saxons  were  divided  into  four  tribes,  called  the  West- 
phalians, the  Engers  (Angrivarii) , the  Eastphalians,  and  the 
Northalbingians ; they  occupied  the  country  between  the  Elbe 
and  the  Rhine,  the  North  Sea  and  the  mountains  of  Hesse  and 
Thuringia.  They  clung  to  primitive  usage  in  maintaining  the 
threefold  division  of  the  people  into  nobles,  freemen,  and  f reed- 
men,  and  submitted  to  the  rule  of  dukes,  or  martial  leaders, 
only  in  time  of  war.  The  nobles  sought  to  establish  a lordship 
over  the  freemen  by  keeping  a large  body  of  followers,  r- 
with  whom  they  would  often  make  incursions  for  plunder 
into  the  territory  of  the  Franks. 


136 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


At  the  Diet  of  Worms  it  was  resolved  to  make  war  against 
the  Saxons,  and  Charles  invaded  their  territory,  advanced  as 
far  as  the  Eresburg,  a strong  fortress,  which  he  carried  by 
storm,  destroyed  the  Irmensul,  an  ancient  and  sacred  trunk  or 
tree,  and  compelled  the  enemy  to  sue  for  peace  and  give  hos- 
tages. 


773] 


At  the  urgent  request  of  pope  Hadrian  I.,  Charles  espoused 
his  cause  against  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lombards,  who  was 
justly  incensed  against  Charles  for  his  treatment  of  his  daughter, 
whom  he  had  married,  but  discarded  at  the  end  of  a 37ear, 
and  sent  back  to  Desiderius.  The  widow  of  Carloman  and  her 
sons  also  had  found  a welcome  refuge  at  his  court,  and  out  of 
revenge  he  importuned  the  pope  to  crown  the  sons  of  Carloman. 
The  pope  refusing,  Desiderius  overran  and  laid  waste  the  papal 
territory.  In  this  emergency  the  pope  invoked  the  aid  of 
Charles,  who  crossed  the  Alps,  from  Geneva,  with  two  armies, 
by  the  Great  St.  Bernard  and  Mont  Cenis,  and  rapidly 
descended  into  the  plain  of  the  Po.  Desiderius  sought 
the  shelter  of*  the  strongly  fortified  city^  of  Pavia,  and  Adelchis, 
his  son,  accompanied  by  the  widow  and  children  of  Carloman, 
that  of  Yerona. 

The  open  country  quickly  submitted  to  the  arms  of  Charles. 
At  Yerona  the  widow  and  children  of  Carloman  fell  into  his 
hands,  and  found  a home,  and  their  graves,  in  France. 
Pavia  held  out  for  many  months,  but  had  to  capitulate, 
and  Desiderius  ended  his  days  in  the  monastery  of  Corvey  in 
Westphalia. 

Legend  sa}Ts  that  Desiderius,  when  shut  up  in  Pavia,  had 
a great  longing  to  see  Charles,  and  ascended  with  a Frankish 
deserter,  called  Otker,  the  highest  tower  to  watch  the  approach- 
ing host.  The  troops  in  charge  of  the  baggage  arrived  first,  and 
the  king  asked  if  Charles  were  among  them.  u Not  yet,”  said 
Otker.  A body  of  the  rank  and  file  came  next,  and  the  king 
repeated  the  same  question.  u Not  yet,”  said  Otker.  The  king 
became  alarmed,  as  the  number  of  the  investing  host  grew 


774] 


568-777.] 


CHARLEMAGNE. 


137 


larger  and  larger ; he  inquired  again  and  again,  but  the  an- 
swer still  rang,  “ Not  yet.”  Presently  a cloud  seemed  to  rise 
in  the  west  and  move  in  their  direction.  It  came  nearer,  and 
the  vast  plain  glittered  with  arms.  In  the  midst  of  the  host 
moved  a majestic  figure  encased  in  armor,  seated  on  an  iron- 
clad horse,  a spear  in  his  left  hand,  and  his  right  ready  to 
grasp  the  sword.  All  the  soldiery  around  him  wore  armor,  and 
the  whole  country  seemed  to  be  covered  with  iron,  and  to  flash 
defiance  and  destruction.  “That  is  your  man,”  cried  Otker, 
and  Deside rius  fell  down  in  terror. 

Pending  the  siege  of  Pavia,  Charles  went  to  Rome,  cele- 
brated Easter  there,  and  placed  the  diploma,  ratifying  the  mag- 
nificent donation  of  his  father  Pepin,  upon  the  altar  of  St. 
Peter.  At  Pavia  Charles  was  crowned  with  the  iron  crown  of 
the  Lombards,  and  called  himself  u King  of  the  Franks  and  of 
the  Lombards.”  That  crown  is  made  of  gold,  but  owes  the 
epithet  “ iron”  to  an  iron  band  in  the  inside,  said  to  have  been 
wrought  from  a nail  of  the  cross  of  Christ.  Adelchis,  the 
son  of  Desiderius,  fled  to  Constantinople,  and  the  Lombard 
kingdom  after  an  existence  of  more  than  two  cen- 
turies ceased  to  be. 


[568-774 


During  the  absence  of  Charles,  the  Saxons,  as  was  their  wont, 


rose  in  arms  ; he  marched  against  them,  and  reduced 


[775-777 


them  to  terms  ; but  the  truce  was  of  short  duration, 
for  their  hostilities  were  renewed  the  very  next  year  when 
Charles  returned  to  Italy  in  order  to  suppress  an  insurrection 
of  the  Lombards.  They  recovered  the  Eresburg  and  laid 
siege  to  Sigburg ; Charles  hastened  to  its  relief,  and  defeated 
them  ; he  gave  to  those  whom  he  could  find,  the  option  of  sub- 
mitting to  the  baptism  of  water,  or  to  that  of  blood,  and  many 
of  their  numbers  preferred  the  former  and  gave  hostages. 

Such  compulsory  conversions,  however,  were  neither  lasting 
nor  sincere,  for  both  the  unbaptized  and  baptized  Saxons  re- 
garded baptism  as  the  grave  of  their  liberty,  and,  although 
many  of  their  number  appeared  at  the  bidding  of  Charles 


138 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


777] 


at  the  Diet  of  Paderborn,  and  swore  fealty,  the  absence  of 
Wittekind,  the  most  intrepid  and  powerful  of  their 
leaders,  boded  no  good. 

To  that  Diet  came  also  Moorish  envoys  from  Saragossa, 
invoking  the  aid  of  Charles  against  the  king  of  Cordova.  He 
collected  a large  army,  invaded  Spain,  and  in  a brilliant  cam- 
paign conquered  the  country  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
Ebro,  which  under  the  name  of  the  Spanish  Marche  was  incor- 
porated in  his  dominions. 

On  his  return,  the  rear  of  his  army  was  molested  by  the 
-j  Basques,  in  the  pass  of  Roncesvalles,  and  almost 
annihilated.  Among  the  slain  was  the  famous  Roland, 
of  whose  exploits  so  much  has  been  written  in  the  legends  of 
chivalry. 

Charles  had  cause  for  a rapid  march  from  the  Peninsula  of 
Spain  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  for  the  Saxons,  led  by  Wit- 
tekind, were  again  in  arms,  and  had  not  only  destroyed  the 
castles  and  churches  which  he  had  built,  but  also  murdered 
the  Frankish  garrisons,  laid  waste  the  country  to  the  Rhine, 
and  advanced  as  far  as  Deutz  opposite  to  Cologne. 

Charles  pursued,  overtook,  and  defeated  them.  He  spent  two 
years  in  their  country,  built  churches  and  monasteries,  founded 
bishoprics  and  established  schools,  as  so  many  means  for  pro- 
moting the  civilization  of  the  people,  whom  he  required  more- 
over to  pay  tithes  to  the  Church.  The  Saxons  promised,  and 
n Charles  was  so  confident  of  his  success  that  he  undertook  a 

781 

journey  to  Rome,  where  the  pope  crowned  his  second  son, 
Pepin,  king  of  Italy,  and  his  third  son,  Louis,  king  of  Aquitaine. 
Charles,  his  eldest  son,  was  the  constant  companion  of  all  his 
undertakings. 

The  reduction  of  the  Saxons,  however,  was  far  from  accom- 
plished, although  Charles  felt  so  assured  of  their  loyalty  that  he 
ordered  them  to  join  his  Franks  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Slavonic  tribes,  whose  incursions  spread  terror  through  the 
eastern  limits  of  his  dominions.  The  Saxons  appeared  in  arms, 


777-786.] 


CHARLEMAGNE. 


139 


but  instead  of  joining  the  Franks,  turned  upon  and  defeated 
them  with  great  slaughter  on  the  Suntel,  a mountain  on  ^7S2 
the  Weser. 

Astounded  and  incensed  at  the  news,  Charles  swore,  and 
took  revenge  in  the  next  campaign,  on  the  bloody  field  at  Ver- 
den,  where  in  his  wrath  he  caused  to  be  beheaded  in  one  day 
not  less  than  4,500  Saxon  prisoners.  This  dreadful  act,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  roused  the  Saxons  to  yet  more  de- 
termined resistance.  The  whole  nation  rose  in  arms  against 
u the  butcher,”  as  they  called  Charles  ; a sanguinary  but  inde- 
cisive battle  was  fought  in  the  next  year  at  Detmold,  and  r 
followed  by  that  on  the  Hase,  in  which  the  Saxons  sustained 
a total  defeat.  Wittekind  fled  into  Denmark,  but  the  people, 
though  defeated  in  battle,  maintained  the  struggle  for  two  years 
longer.  The  superior  strength  and  resources  of  Charles,  as  well 
as  the  adoption  of  a more  clement  and  humane  policy,  accom- 
plished their  final  subjection,  and  conversion  into  loyal  vassals. 

Some  of  his  measures,  however,  were  hardly  wise,  especially 
the  compulsory  payment  of  tithes  for  the  support  of  the  Church, 
which  Charles  regarded  in  the  light  of  a sacred  duty,  while  the 
Saxons  loathed  it  as  tribute  in  disguise.  His  code  of  laws, 
moreover,  as  set  forth  in  the  Diet  of  Paderborn,  was  too  severe, 
and  incensed  rather  than  pacified  the  free  and  independent 
Saxons.  He  sent  for  Wittekind  and  Albion,  promised  them 
safe  conduct,  gave  hostages  for  their  security,  and  induced  them 
to  visit  him  at  Attigny  in  France. 

They  went,  were  kindly  received,  and  found  the  proposals  of 
Charles  so  satisfactory  that  they  swore  fealty,  and  his  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  Christianity  so  conclusive  that  they  professed 
themselves  convinced  and  ready  to  be  baptized.  Charles  him- 
self stood  godfather  to  Wittekind,  and  the  influence  of  his  ex- 
ample was  so  great  that  many  Saxon  nobles,  and  thou- 
sands of  the  people,  submitted  to  baptism. 

Legend  delivers  the  conversion  of  Wittekind  rather  differently. 
It  says  that,  disguised  as  a beggar,  he  went  into  the  camp  of 


[786 


140 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


/ 


787] 


787] 


Charles,  and  was  present  at  the  mass  on  Easter  Day.  As  the 
priest  was  elevating  the  host,  he  saw  therein  a beautiful  and 
heavenly  babe.  After  the  service,  the  Saxon  chief  was  recog- 
nized and  led  to  Charles.  He  told  the  king  what  he  had  seen, 
and  craved  baptism.  His  example  was  quickly  followed  by 
others,  and  he  persuaded  his  countrymen  to  sheathe  the  sword 
and  keep  the  peace  ; at  least,  for  the  time. 

In  response  to  the  urgent  entreaties  of  Hadrian,  Charles 
repaired  to  Italy  and  crushed  the  formidable  rebellion 
fomented  by  Arigisio,  the  duke  of  Benevento,  and  son-in-law 
of  Desiderius.  Tassilo,  duke  of  Bavaria,  his  other  son- 
in-law,  also  meditated  revolt.  Charles  returned  to  Ger- 
many, deposed  Tassilo,  and  added  his  duchy  to  his  dominions. 

This  extension  of  his  empire  brought  him  in  contact  with  the 
turbulent  Slavonians  and  Avars,  whose  hostile  incursions,  exe- 
cuted with  great  rapidity,  were  most  destructive,  and  needed  to 
be  checked.  Charles  undertook  to  chastise  them.  Three  col- 
umns of  his  victorious  Franks,  augmented  by  the  tributary 
Frisians  and  Saxons,  were  poured  through  the  Carpathian  moun- 
tains and  along  the  Danube,  b}^  land  and  by  water,  into  the 
heart  of  their  country.  Their  rings,  that  is,  the  wooden  fortifi- 
cations which  encircled  their  villages  and  settlements,  were  de- 
stroyed ; and  after  a bloody  conflict  of  eight  years  their  absolute 
overthrow  was  attested  by  a depopulated  country,  the  utter 
ruin  of  the  royal  residence  of  the  chagan,  and  the 
dispersion  of  their  treasures,  the  rapine  of  250  years, 
among  the  warriors  of  Charles,  and  over  the  churches  and  pal- 
aces of  Italy  and  Gaul. 

The  ancient  and  vague  country  of  Pannonia,  as  far  as  the 
Raab  in  Hungary,  received  the  new  name  of  the  Marche  of  the 
Avars,  which  Charles  portioned  out  among  his  Frankish,  Saxon, 
and  Bavarian  subjects,  and  thus  laid  the  foundations  of  the  great 
eastern  empire,  now  known  as  Austria. 

The  pacification  and  conversion  of  the  Saxons,  however,  were 
far  from  completed,  and  entailed  much  effusion  of  blood  in  pro- 


787-811.] 


CHARLEMAGNE . 


141 


tracted  warfare.  Many  Saxons  were  removed  by  Charles  to 

other  lands  ; some  he  sent  to  France,  others  to  Bavaria,  and  to 

the  Marche  of  the  Avars.  Traces  of  this  policy  survive* to  this 

day  in  the  names  of  Sachsenhausen,  that  is,  the  home  of  the 

Saxons,  opposite  to  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  of  Sachsenheim 

in  Franconia ; just  as  those  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  on 

the  Oder,  indicate  the  fords  by  which  the  armies  of  Charles 

crossed  those  rivers.  Those  troubles  only  terminated  r 

J S03 

with  the  treaty,  known  as  the  Peace  of  Selz,  by  which 
the  Saxons  were  in  all  respects  made  the  equals  of  the  Franks, 
but  required  to  renounce  idolatry,  receive  baptism,  pay  tithes, 
and  enjoy  immunity  from  all  taxation  and  payment  of  tribute. 

The  last  important  military  expedition  which  Charles  under- 
took was  directed  against  the  Normans,  or  Northmen,  a Teutonic 
race,  who  then  occupied  the  modern  countries  of  Denmark,  Swe- 
den, and  Norway,  and,  like  their  neighbors  and  brethren  the  Sax- 
ons, were  fierce  warriors,  but  especially  dreaded  as  pirates.  The 
most  inveterate  of  the  Saxon  idolaters  had  gone  to  them ; their 
sudden  and  frequent  descents  upon  the  coasts  of  Germany  and 


Gaul,  marked  by  acts  of  savage  cruelty,  had  made  their 


[808 


name  a terror  in  those  parts.  Charles,  the  son  of  Charle- 
magne, had  already  defeated  them,  but  the  Normans  soon  after 


landed  in  Friesland  and  laid  the  people  under  tribute.  To 


[811 


avenge  the  insult,  and  chastise  the  pirates,  Charlemagne 
advanced  against  them  as  far  as  the  Weser,  when  the  good  news 
of  the  death  of  Godfrey,  the  fierce  king  of  the  Danes,  arrested 
his  progress,  and  stayed  further  hostilities  from  that  quarter 
during  the  remaining  years  of  his  life. 

Events  of  vast  importance  to  Charles  and  his  successors 
which  had  been  enacted  in  Italy  remain  to  be  told.  The  r- 
death  of  his  life-long  friend,  pope  Hadrian,  was  a great 
blow  to  Charles.  He  wept  for  him  as  a son  weeps  for  his 
father.  Leo  III.,  his  successor  in  the  pontificate,  on  his  way, 
in  solemn  procession,  to  the  church  of  St.  Lawrence,  was  beset 
by  a band  of  armed  men,  who  threw  him  from  his  horse, 


142 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A,D. 


dragged  him  to  the  church,  and  attempted  to  put  out  his  eyes 
April,  and  cut  off  his  tongue.  In  this  they  did  not  succeed ; 

799  and  though  they  cast  him  into  prison,  he  was  rescued  by 
a faithful  servant,  and  recovered  his  sight  and  his  speech.  The 
matter  was  referred  to  Charles,  who  bade  the  pontiff  pay  him 
a visit  at  Paderborn,  as  owing  to  an  impending  expedition 
against  the  Saxons  he  could  not  then  go  to  Italy.  Leo  com- 
plied with  the  request,  and,  attended  by  a numerous  retinue, 
went  to  Charles,  who  gave  him  a cordial  and  magnificent  recep- 
tion, promised  to  visit  Rome  in  person,  and  caused  him  to  be 
reconducted  to  his  see  with  a powerful  escort. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  Charles  set  out  for  Rome,  and 
soon  after  his  arrival  investigated  the  charges  which  had  been 
preferred  against  the  pope,  with  the  result  that  their  falsity  was 
established,  their  promoters  were  punished,  and  the  pope 
openly  in  the  face  of  the  people,  holding  the  holy  Gospels  in 
his  hands,  avouched  his  own  innocence.  This  took  place  a few 
days  before  Christmas,  which  was  not  only  the  beginning  of 
the  New  Year,  but  of  a new  century. 

Charles,  his  court,  and  all  Rome,  were  present  at  the  high 
services  of  the  Nativity  in  St.  Peter’s.  He  knelt  in 
profound  devotion  on  the  steps  of  the  altar.  When  he 
arose,  the  pope  approached  him,  with  a splendid  crown  in  his 
hands,  placed  it  on  his  head,  and  saluted  him  as  Caesar  Augus- 
tus ; the  dome  resounded  with  the  acclamations  of  the  clergy, 
the  soldiery,  and  the  people  : “ Long  life  and  victory  to  Charles, 
the  most  pious  Augustus,  crowned  by  God  the  great  and  pacific 
emperor  of  the  Romans  ! ” 

This  solemn  act  was  ratified  by  the  unction  of  Charles,  and 
Pepin  his  son,  the  salutation  and  adoration  of  the  pontiff,  and 
the  rich  offerings  which  the  emperor  placed  upon  the  altar. 
Thus  began  the  Germano-Roman  empire  324  years  after  the 
overthrow  of  the  Western  empire  by  Odoacer. 

His  coronation  is  often  represented  as  the  sudden  and  uncon- 
certed act  of  Leo’s  gratitude,  and  the  secretary  and  historian 


800] 


799-814] 


CHARLEMAGNE . 


143 


of  Charlemagne  actually  states  that  had  he  known  the  pope’s 
intention,  he  would  not  have  entered  the  church.  But  that 
statement  carries  little  weight,  for  it  is  known  that  Charles 
coveted  the  imperial  title,  and  that  a Roman  synod  had  pro- 
nounced it  the  only  adequate  reward  of  his  merit ; a tacit 
understanding  between  him  and  Leo  may  be  regarded  as  estab- 
lished beyond  all  doubt. 

The  last  years  of  the  life  of  Charlemagne  were  shrouded  in 
sorrow.  He  had  to  mourn  the  loss  of  his  sons  Pepin  and 
Charles,  and  as  he  felt  his  strength  waning,  summoned  the 
notables  of  the  empire  to  his  palace  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  pre- 
sented to  them  his  youngest  son,  Louis,  and  took  their  promise 
of  allegiance  to  him.  On  the  following  day,  arrayed  in  his 
imperial  robe,  he  went  with  Louis  to  the  church  of  St.  Mary, 
and  in  the  presence  of  a vast  assembly  explained  and  com- 
mended to  him  the  duties  of  an  emperor.  He  then  bade  him 
take  the  imperial  crown  from  the  altar  and  place  it  on  r 
his  head,  in  token  that  its  possession  was  the  gift  of 
God,  and  not  conferred  by  man.  After  that  they  parted,  and 
Louis  returned  to  his  kingdom  of  Aquitaine. 

Soon  after,  Charles  took  a violent  fever.  Averse  to  medi- 
cine, he  had  recourse  to  his  usual  and  simple  remedy  of  abstain- 
ing from  food.  But  it  failed,  and  he  grew  weaker.  On  the 
fifth  day  of  his  sickness  he  received  the  Sacrament,  and  on  the 
seventh  he  succumbed  to  the  fever.  At  the  approach  of  death 
he  signed  himself  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  meekly  folded  his 
hands,  closed  his  eyes,  and  said  in  a low  voice,  jAn.  28, 
u Father,  into  thy  hands  I commend  my  spirit!”  814 
Thus  he  died. 

On  the  same  day  his  body  was  embalmed,  arrayed  with  all 
the  insignia  of  imperial  splendor,  seated  on  a golden  throne, 
and  thus  lowered  into  the  vault  of  the  church  of  St.  Mary. 
There  sat  Charles  in  death  as  if  he  were  yet  alive,  in  his  purple 
imperial  robe  covered  with  golden  bees,  the  crown  on  his  head, 
his  feet  encased  in  golden  shoes,  a sword  and  the  pilgrim’s 


144 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 

wallet  around  him,  the  hoi}7  Gospels  on  his  knees,  a shield  and 
a sceptre  at  his  side.  Then  the  vault  was  filled  with  spices, 
and  closed  up. 

The  propriety  of  the  words  “ great,”  and  u pacific,”  with 
which  Leo  greeted  Charles  on  the  day  of  his  coronation  may 
fairly  be  questioned.  Though  the  title  of  u great  ” is  indissol- 
ubly blended  with  his  name,  and  though  that  name  with  the 
prefix  of  “ Saint”  stands  in  the  Roman  calendar,  there  is  much 
in  his  character  and  life  which  seems  to  conflict  with  true  great- 
ness and  true  holiness. 

A great  conqueror  and  a great  governor  he  was,  but  the 
widow  and  sons  of  Carloman,  as  well  as  Desiderius,  with  his 
son  and  daughter,  and  his  sons-in-law,  would  doubtless  call  him 
a great  tyrant,  while  the  4,500  Saxon  prisoners  whom  he  caused 
to  be  beheaded  in  one  day  rise  in  judgment  against  him,  and 
justify  the  ignominious  surname  of  u butcher”  which  their  sur- 
viving friends  gave  to  him. 

To  call  Charles,  who  throughout  his  life,  and  to  his  dying 
hour,  was  engaged  in  war,  a pacific  emperor  may  provoke  our 
mirth,  but  cannot  command  our  assent. 

His  age  was  barbarous,  warfare  was  barbarous,  might  was 
right,  and  Charles  was  a tyrant.  Blind  obedience  might  secure 
his  friendship,  but  opposition  was  sure  to  draw  forth  his  implac- 
able hatred.  His  wrath  knew  no  mercy,  though  his  religious  con- 
victions were  doubtless  sincere.  Although  not  a man  of  letters, 
he  sought  to  improve  himself,  and  in  mature  age  strove  to  mas- 
ter the  art  of  writing.  He  loved  to  share  the  labors  of  learned 
men  in  the  production  of  a German  grammar,  and  caused  the 
songs  and  poems  of  ancient  times  to  be  collected.  He  even 
supported  his  friend  and  chancellor,  Alcuin,  in  his  efforts  to  fix 
the  Latin  text  of  the  sacred  Scriptures. 

An  excellent  and  zealous  churchman,  he  created  bishoprics, 
built  churches,  monasteries  and  convents,  and  schools,  and  his 
bounty  provided  the  means  for  their  support.  He  even  had  a 
school  in  his  palace,  and  required  all  the  boys  to  attend.  Some- 


742-814.] 


CHARLEMAGNE . 


145 


times  he  visited  the  school,  and  having  noticed  that  the  sons  of 
the  higher  officers  ranked  below  those  of  inferior  servants  in 
conduct  and  attainments,  he  made  the  latter  stand  on  his  right 
hand,  and  said  to  them  : 44 1 thank  you,  children,  for  your  work, 
which  pleases  me,  and  will  be  of  lasting  benefit  to  you.”  The 
former  he  bade  stand  on  his  left,  and  rated  them  thus  : 44  You, 
princes  and  the  like,  who  have  not  obeyed  me,  and  instead  of 
learning  have  wasted  your  time  in  play  and  idling,  I want  you 
to  know  that  your  birth  and  your  riches  will  not  help  you,  and 
unless  you  turn  over  a new  leaf  and  study,  I swear  that  Charles 
will  never  be  your  friend,  nor  do  you  a good  turn.”  He  encour- 
aged art  and  fostered  the  culture  of  music.  Italian  architects 
constructed  for  him  magnificent  palaces  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Nim- 
wegen,  and  Ingelheim,  and  he  projected  great  national  works, 
notably  a canal,  designed  to  connect  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube. 

As  a legislator  he  erred  in  the  severity  of  his  laws,  which,  on 
the  whole,  were  more  oppressive  than  beneficial. 

For  the  Saxons  he  decreed  the  pain  of  death  on  the  refusal  of 
baptism,  on  the  false  pretense  of  baptism,  on  a relapse  into 
idolatry,  and  on  eating  meat  in  Lent. 

He  encouraged  agriculture,  and  his  own  domains  were  model 
establishments  ; he  was  familiar  with  the  smallest  details  of  in- 
come and  expense,  and  in  a directory  drawn  up  by  him  for  the 
use  of  his  stewards,  preserved  to  this  day,  may  be  read  his  in- 
structions for  the  preparation  of  butter  and  cheese,  the  brewing 
of  beer,  and  the  making  of  wine,  as  well  as  how  many  geese, 
ducks,  chickens,  and  eggs  should  be  sold. 

His  standing  army  was  small,  but  his  44  Heerbann,”  or  call  to 
arms,  required  all  his  freeborn  subjects,  able  for  military  ser- 
vice, to  flock  to  his  standard,  fully  armed  and  supplied  with 
three  months’  provisions. 

The  stature  of  Charles  was  large  ; he  measured  in  height 
seven  of  his  own  feet,  and  his  strength  was  so  prodigious  that 
he  was  credited  with  the  ability  of  breaking  a horseshoe  as  if  it 
were  bread,  and  with  having  at  one  terrific  blow  cleft  asunder  a 


146 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


Saracen  horseman,  from  the  helmet  to  the  saddle.  His  counte- 
nance was  pleasing ; he  had  a straight  nose,  large,  bright  eyes, 
ordinarily  of  a cheerful  expression,  but  flashing  fire  when  he  was 
angry.  His  black  hair  was  long  and  waving,  his  gait  and  pres- 
ence commanding,  and  his  voice  clear  and  melodious. 

He  was  fond  of  manly  exercise,  especially  of  hunting.  Spare 
of  diet,  and  partial  to  venison,  he  loved  to  hear  at  his  meals  the 
stories  of  the  past,  and  the  songs  of  the  heroes. 

He  needed  but  little  sleep,  and  was  wont  to  rise  and  work  at 
night. 

His  dress  was  of  primitive  simplicity.  His  clothes  were 
homespun,  and,  it  is  said,  made  by  the  ladies  of  his  family.  In 
summer  he  wore  linen  and  a plain  coat.  In  winter,  but  only 
late  in  life,  he  put  on  woolens  and  a fur  coat.  On  grand  occa- 
sions he  appeared  in  all  the  magnificence  of  imperial  splendor. 

The  long  reign  of  Charles,  the  extent  of  his  conquests,  his 
liberal  views,  the  strength  of  his  government,  and  the  esteem  of 
his  contemporaries  combine  to  assign  to  him  a commanding 
place  in  history  ; but  the  vast  empire,  which  he  restored,  and 
ruled  by  his  iron  will,  in  the  more  feeble  hands  of  his  successors 
underwent  a speedy  partition. 

REFERENCES. 

Gibbon,  “ Decline  and  Fall/’  etc.,  vol.  Y.  pp.  27-53;  Milman, 
“Latin  Christianity,”  vol.  IT.  pp.  438-508;  Duller,  “History  of  the 
German  People,”  vol.  I.  pp.  123-153;  Schmidt,  “History  of  the  Ger- 
mans,” vol.  III.  pp.  1-35. 


836-901.] 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT 


147 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT.  [sti-ooi 


The  Roman  conquest  of  Great  Britain  embraced  England  and 
the  Lowlands  of  Caledonia,  or  Scotland.  The  withdrawal  of  the 
Roman  troops  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  exposed  the 
Britons  to  the  incursions  of  the  Piets  and  Scots,  and  induced 
them  to  make  friends  with  the  Saxons  and  Angles,  through 
whose  aid  they  hoped  to  expel  their  northern  enemies.  The 
Saxons  came,  and  fought  not  only  the  Piets  and  Scots,  but  the 
Britons  ; drove  them  into  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  Cumberland, 
and  made  themselves  masters  of  all  the  land  from  the  Frith  of 
Forth  to  the  English  Channel,  and  from  the  Severn  to  the  North 
Sea.  The  name  of  England,  that  is,  the  land  of  the  Angles, 
transmits  the  history  of  their  conquest,  just  as  the  names  of 
Essex,  Wessex,  and  Sussex  indicate  the  counties  in  which  the 
several  Saxon  tribes  established  their  petty  kingdoms.  There 
were  seven  such  kingdoms,  which,  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century,  were  united  into  one  kingdom  under  Egbert,  r 
who  took  the  title  of  King  of  the  English. 

The  Saxon  king  Ethelwulf  had  four  sons,  Ethelbald,  Ethel- 


bert,  Ethelred,  and  Alfred.  Osberga,  his  wife,  was 


[83G-858 


a good  woman  and  an  excellent  mother.  One  day 
she  was  reading  to  her  children  from  a beautifully  illuminated 
book,  which  was  written,  not  printed,  some  Saxon  poetry,  and 
told  them,  because  none  of  them  could  read,  u whichever  of  you 
can  first  learn  to  read  this  book,  shall  have  it  as  a gift.”  Alfred, 
the  youngest,  at  once  set  to  work,  and  very  soon  carried  off  the 
prize.  He  appears  to  have  been  a favorite  with  both  his  par- 
ents ; and  on  a visit  which  Ethelwulf  paid  to  Rome,  the  pope 
anointed  him  as  king,  it  is  thought,  of  one  of  the  minor  thrones 


148 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


of  Britain.  But  it  so  happened  that  Ethelbald,  Ethelbert,  and 
Ethelred  did  not  reign  long,  and  the  crown,  by  the  unanimous 
choice  of  the  people,  was  conferred  upon  Alfred,  who  was 
then  only  in  his  twenty-third  year. 

At  that  time  the  Normans,  or  Norsemen,  called  Danes  by  the 
English,  made  frequent  descents  on  the  English  coasts  for  plun- 
der and  conquest,  and,  as  they  were  generally  successful,  they 
soon  came  in  larger  numbers,  intending  to  possess  themselves  of 
the  whole  country. 

In  the  very  first  year  of  his  reign,  Alfred  had  to  fight  the 
Danes  in  nine  battles,  and  inflicted  so  much  loss  upon  them  that 
they  consented  to  make  a treaty  of  peace  with  him,  in  virtue 
whereof  they  had  to  evacuate  Wessex,  and  retire  to  London, 
where  they  passed  the  winter. 

They  were  afraid  to  return  to  Wessex  for  three  years,  but  in 
the  meantime  carried  fire  and  sword  into  the  country  north  of 
London,  as  far  as  Scotland,  so  successfully  that  they  conquered 
the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  of  Northumbria,  Mercia,  and  East 
Anglia.  Then  the  contest  for  supremacy  lay  between  them  and 
Alfred,  who  had  wisely  employed  the  interval  of  the  truce  in  the 
building  of  a small  fleet. 

So  when  the  Danes  had  surprised  the  castle  of  Wareham  in 
Wessex,  Alfred  retaliated  by  a blow  at  sea.  He  attacked 
a Danish  squadron  of  seven  ships,  took  one,  and  put  the 
rest  to  flight.  The  Danes  were  frightened,  and  swore  by  their 
bracelets  and  upon  the  relics  of  some  Christian  saints,  to  observe 
the  peace.  But  as  the  binding  force  of  oaths,  promises,  and 
treaties  was  so  constantly  disregarded  by  them  that  the  people 
justly  called  them  u truce-breakers,”  it  is  not  surprising  to  read, 
that  the  very  next  night  following  the  treaty  with  Alfred  they 
fell  upon  him  unawares,  and  almost  possessed  themselves  of  his 
person. 

Their  plan  was  to  take  Alfred  in  the  rear,  and  they  galloped 
to  Exeter,  to  which  place  they  had  also  ordered  a strong  fleet 
with  re-enforcements.  Half  their  ships  were  wrecked  in  a storm, 


876] 


871-878.] 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 


149 


[877 


and  the  other  half  entirely  destroyed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Exe 
by  the  Saxon  fleet.  Alfred  then  laid  siege  to  Exeter  and 
forced  Guthrum,  the  king  of  the  Danes,  to  capitulate, 
give  hostages  and  oaths,  and  evacuate  Wessex. 

Guthrum  did  not  go  very  far,  for  he  established  himself  at 
Gloucester,  and  in  spite  of  his  oaths,  surprised  Alfred  at  r- 
Chippenham,  on  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany,  with  superior 
numbers,  dispersed  his  troops,  and  compelled  him  to  fly  for 
safety  to  the  obscure  retreat  of  the  isle  of  Athelney,  in  the  heart 
of  Somerset,  where,  attended  by  only  a few  faithful  followers, 
and  disguised  as  a common  peasant,  he  found  a temporary  home 
in  the  lowly  cabin  of  a swineherd. 

On  a certain  day  when  the  swineherd’s  wife  was  baking  her 
loaves,  she  bade  her  guest  watch  them.  He  was  sitting  near 
the  hearth,  but  so  intently  at  work  upon  his  bow  and  arrows 
that  he  forgot  the  loaves,  and  when  the  woman  returned  they 
were  burning.  She  was  very  angry  and  gave  Alfred  a sharp 
rating.  “ You  man,”  she  cried,  u you  will  not  turn  the  bread 
you  see  burning,  but  you  will  be  glad  enough  to  eat  it.”  Alfred 
laughed,  and  his  friend  and  biographer  writes,  “ This  unlucky 
woman  little  thought  she  was  talking  to  the  king.” 

From  his  retreat  Alfred  communicated  with  friends,  and  some 
time  between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide  of  the  same  year,  enough 
had  repaired  to  him  to  warrant  his  reappearance  in  public,  for 
both  the  Danes  and  his  subjects  thought  that  he  was  dead,  or 
had  gone  to  some  foreign  country. 

The  story  runs,  that  one  day  when  Alfred  sat  alone  reading, 
a poor  pilgrim  came  begging  his  alms  in  God’s  name.  He  had 
only  one  loaf  and  a little  wine,  which  he  cheerfully  divided  with 
the  pilgrim,  who  received  his  gifts  with  thanks,  but  suddenly 
vanished,  and  when  he  had  gone,  the  gifts  lay  there  un- 
touched. 

Soon  after  his  servants  returned  laden  with  fish  they  had 
taken,  and  at  night  some  one  appeared  to  him,  who  said : 
u Alfred,  thy  will  and  conscience  are  known  to  Christ,  who  will 


150 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


now  make  an  end  of  thy  sorrow  and  care  ; for  to-morrow  strong 
helpers  will  come  to  thee,  and  thou  slialt  subdue  thine  enemies.” 
u Who  art  thou?”  said  the  king.  “ St.  Cuthbert,”  quoth  the 
other,  u the  poor  pilgrim  that  yesterday  was  here  with  thee,  to 
whom  thou  gavest  both  bread  and  wine.  I am  bus}'  for  thee 
and  thine ; wherefore  have  thou  mind  hereof,  when  it  is  well 
with  thee.” 

So  tells  the  legend,  and  history  records  that  not  only  did 
numbers  flock  to  him,  but  that  by  a stroke  of  good  fortune  the 
magical  banner  of  the  Danes,  called  the  Raven,  had  been  cap- 
tured by  the  Saxons.  The  Danes,  who  were  very  superstitious, 
thought  that  loss  a great  and  terrible  calamity.  The  three 
daughters  of  the  great  Lodbroke,  they  said,  had  embroidered  it 
in  one  noon- tide,  and  the  raven  would  stretch  his  wings  when 
they  were  victorious  in  battle,  but  droop  when  they  were  beaten. 
That  standard  was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  who  was 
preparing  to  march  against  them.  But  before  he  attacked  the 
Danes  Alfred,  desiring  to  know  their  exact  strength  and  posi- 
tion, disguised  himself  as  a gleeman,  or  minstrel,  and  went  with 
his  harp  into  their  camp.  He  played  and  sang  in  the  very  tent 
of  Guthrum,  and  amused  his  warriors,  while  he  found  out  every- 
thing he  wanted  to  know.  Then  he  returned  to  his  friends, 
summoned  his  followers,  led  them  against  the  Danes,  defeated 
them  with  great  slaughter,  and  compelled  them  to  agree  to  a 
treaty  of  peace,  which  is  still  extant,  and  known  as  u Alfred  and 


878] 


Guthrum’ s Peace.”  Upon  the  primary  conditions  that 


Guthrum  should  evacuate  all  Wessex  and  become  a 
Christian,  a large  tract  of  country  in  the  East  of  England  was 
assigned  to  him  and  his  Danes,  which,  joined  to  their  posses- 
sions in  Northumbria,  stretched  from  the  Tweed  to  the  Thames, 
and  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest  was  known  as 
the  u Dane-lagh,”  or  u Danelaw.” 

Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty,  Guthrum  went  with 
only  thirty  of  his  chiefs  to  Aultre,  near  Athelney,  where  Alfred 
stood  for  him  at  the  font,  and  gave  him  the  baptismal  Saxon 


878-897.] 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 


151 


name  of  Athelstan.  Throughout  his  life  he  remained  the  faith- 
ful friend  and  ally  of  his  royal  godfather. 

The  ensuing  fifteen  years  were,  in  a measure,  peaceful,  for 
the  attacks  of  the  Danes  became  less  frequent.  Of  course  these 
Danes  were  not  the  subjects  of  Guthrum,  but  fresh  arrivals 
from  beyond  the  sea,  who  infested  the  coasts  of  England,  Hol- 
land, Belgium,  and  France,  as  it  might  suit  their  policy  of 
always  making  war  against  the  weakest.  When  France  was 
strong,  they  assailed  England ; when  England  was  strong,  they 
attacked  France,  or  the  neighboring  countries. 

During  those  years  much  was  done  towards  the  civilization  of 
England.  By  mutual  agreement  the  laws  of  the  Danes  were 
assimilated  to  those  of  the  Saxons.  Habits  of  industry  and 
the  arts  of  peace  began  to  displace  the  barbarous  usages  of 
predatory  warfare.  Towns  were  rebuilt,  roads  and  bridges  re- 
paired, and  fortresses  reconstructed.  Alfred  made  admirable 
provision  for  the  defence  of  the  country  by  the  new  system  of 
dividing  the  entire  military  force  of  the  land  into  two  parts, 
which  alternately  relieved  each  other,  so  that  in  the  event  of  war 
one-half  of  those  liable  to  military  duty  were  called  out,  while 
the  other  half  remained  at  home  for  protection,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  land.  He  also  created  a strong  and  competent  navy 
which  numbered  more  than  a hundred  sail. 

The  danger,  against  which  he  had  prepared,  burst  out  with 
terrible  violence  in  the  formidable  invasion  of  Haes-  r898_898 
ten,  or  Hasting,  which  was  strengthened  by  the 
treacherous  Danes  in  the  Danelagh,  who,  now  that  Guthrum 
was  dead,  violated  their  oaths,  joined  the  invaders,  and  by 
skilful  and  rapid  operations  speedily  overran  and  spread  terror 
through  the  greater  part  of  the  country.  The  war  lasted  for 
three  years,  and  was  aggravated  by  famine,  “ the  pestilence  of 
men,  and  the  murrain  of  beasts.,,  Alfred  gave  the  enemy  no 
rest  until  his  power  was  broken,  and  the  humbled  Hasting 
recrossed  the  channel  “ without  profit  or  honor/’  He 
went  to  France  and  obtained  a settlement  there  from  its 


[897 


152 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


weak  king,  the  fame  whereof  soon  attracted  numbers  of  his 
countrymen,  who  a few  years  later  conquered  the  country  and 
called  it  Normandy. 

Alfred  was  as  efficient  in  peace  as  he  had  been  in  war.  Jus- 
tice and  law  had  almost  perished  under  the  curse  of  war,  but  he 
undertook  and  accomplished  the  great  task  of  their  restoration. 

He  revised  the  laws  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  prefixed  to 
his  code  the  Ten  Commandments  and  a portion  of  the  law  of 
Moses.  He  established  such  excellent  systems  of  police  and 
justice,  and  implanted  so  strong  a love  of  honesty  within  the 
hearts  of  his  people,  that  a man  who  had  lost  a full  purse 
might  find  it  untouched  a month  later  on  the  very  spot  where 
he  dropped  it ; and  it  was  a common  thing  to  say  that  in  his 
reign  golden  bracelets  and  jewels  might  have  been  hung  across 
the  streets  and  no  one  would  have  touched  them. 

His  energ}^  and  singular  activity,  fostered  by  a judicious  and 
methodical  division  of  time,  deserve  to  be  held  up  to  the  admi- 
ration and  imitation  of  mankind.  He  travelled  much  and  took 
note  of  difficult  cases  in  law.  To  arbitrary,  unjust,  or  corrupt 
judges  he  was  inexorable,  and  there  was  hardly  anything  good, 
useful,  or  ennobling  but  received  his  attention.  He  found  time 
for  everything,  for  the  duties  of  religion,  for  conversation, 
study,  and  translations,  for  learning  poetry  by  heart,  for  plan- 
ning buildings,  for  instructing  craftsmen  in  goldwork,  and 
for  teaching  even  falconers  and  dog-keepers  their  work.  It  is 
said  that  he  divided  each  twenty-four  hours  into  three  equal 
portions  of  eight  hours  ; one-third  he  spent  in  affairs  of  state, 
another  he  devoted  to  religion  and  study,  and  the  third  he  set 
apart  to  sleeping,  eating,  and  the  care  of  his  body.  The  last 
matter  is  all  the  more  noteworthy  because  he  was  delicate  and 
troubled  with  a mysterious  but  painful  disease,  which  baffled 
the  skill,  or  more  probably  the  ignorance,  cf  his  “ leeches,”  or 
physicians. 

His  ingenuity  devised,  in  the  absence  of  clocks  or  watches, 
which  were  then  unknown,  the  contrivance  of  a time  measure 


871-901.] 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 


153 


by  wax  torches  or  candles,  which  were  all  made  of  the  same 
weight  and  size,  and  notched  in  the  stem  at  regular  distances. 
These  time-candles  were  12  inches  long,  and  six  were  con- 
sumed in  24  hours  ; one  candle  would  burn  four  hours,  and  if 
it  had  six  notches,  each  two  inches  of  wax  would  mark  the 
lapse  of  40  minutes.  But  as  exposure  to  draught  caused  the 
wax  to  burn  too  fast  and  irregularly,  Alfred  corrected  the  mat- 
ter by  the  further  contrivance  of  cases  made  of  wood  and  thin 
layers  of  white  horn,  which  were  the  first  lanterns  made  in 
England,  from  models  he  may  have  seen  in  Italy. 

In  the  impulse  he  gave  to  education  and  literature,  chiefly  by 
his  own  example,  Alfred  achieved  yet  greater  triumphs  than 
those  he  gained  as  a warrior  and  as  a lawgiver.  In  mature  age 
he  began  to  study  Latin,  translated  and  edited  for  the  people 
the  Consolations  of  Boethius,  the  Pastorals  of  pope  Gregory, 
the  General  History  of  Orosius,  and  the  Church  History  of 
Bede.  His  object  was  that  every  free-born  English  youth 
should  u abide  at  his  book  till  he  can  well  understand  English 
writing.”  To  his  example  is  due  the  English  or  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle,  a compilation  made  during  the  reign  of  Alfred,  who 
may  be  called  the  Creator  of  English  Literature. 

He  was  an  earnest  and  liberal  patron  of  monasteries  and 
schools,  and  drew  to  his  country  learned  men  from  abroad  to 
preside  over  the  schools  which  he  founded.  He  encouraged 
foreign  travel,  and  sought  to  obtain  useful  information  and 
knowledge  from  any  quarter.  At  his  bidding  a Norwegian 
shipmaster  explored  the  White  Sea,  Wulfstan  traced  the  coast 
of  Esthonia,  and  Suithelm  performed  the  overland  journey  to 
India  to  carry  his  presents  to  the  Syrian  Christians  who  were 
settled  on  the  coasts  of  Malabar  and  Coromandel. 

Agriculture,  architecture,  commerce,  and  trade,  in  fact,  what- 
ever could  promote  the  growth,  culture,  and  prosperity  of 
England,  engaged  his  thoughts,  and  drew  forth  his  liberal  and 
earnest  support.  The  villages  and  towns  which  in  the  war  had 
been  destroyed  rose  from  their  ruins,  those  which  had  escaped 


154 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


destruction,  he  beautified  and  enlarged  ; he  made  London  his 
capital,  and  provided  in  fifty  strong  towers  and  castles  an  ad- 
mirable defence  against  the  incursions  of  enemies. 


This  excellent  Christian  king,  who  lived  for  the  good  of  his 
people,  deserves  on  account  of  his  virtues  to  be  called  Great. 
u So  long  as  I have  lived,”  he  wrote,  “ I have  striven  to  live 
worthily,”  and  longed  uto  leave  to  the  men  that  come  after  a 
remembrance  of  him  in  good  works.” 

He  died  in  the  fifty-third  vear  of  his  age  and  the 
901 J J & 

thirtieth  of  his  reign. 

His  death  is  recorded  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  as  fol- 
lows : — 

“901.  This  year  died  Alfred,  the  son  of  Ethelwulf,  six 
nights  before  the  mass  of  All  Saints.  He  was  king  over  all  the 
English  nation,  except  that  part  that  was  under  the  power  of 
the  Danes.  He  held  the  government  one  year  and  a half  less 
than  thirty  winters ; and  then  Edward  his  son  took  to  the 
government.” 


REFERENCES. 


Mackintosh,  “History  of  England,”  ch.  XI.;  Knight,  “Pictorial 
History  of  England,”  vol.  I. ; Milner,  “ History  of  England,”  pp. 
80-92;  Green,  “ Short  History  of  the  English  People,”  pp.  77-84,  and 
the  authorities  prefixed  to  Section  V.  of  that  work. 


/ 


1072-1099.]  GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON . 


155 


GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON.  [icee-ioeo 


The  Holy  Land,  and  especially  the  Holy  Places,  at  Jerusalem 
were  very  early  visited  by  pilgrims.  The  churches  built  by  the 
emperor  Constantine,  and  Helena  his  mother,  over  the  Holy 
Places  at  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem,  and  the  example  of  that 
devout  woman,  who  in  her  old  age  made  the  pilgrimage  to 
the  Holy  Land,  strengthened  and  fed  the  desire  of  Christians 
throughout  the  world  to  see  the  land  in  which  the  Saviour  had 
lived,  to  visit  the  scenes  of  His  life  and  ministry,  and  to  pray 
at  His  sepulchre. 

The  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  became  a meritorious  work,  and 
he  who  made  it  enjoyed  great  privileges  ; he  travelled  under 
the  protection  of  the  law  ; no  toll  was  asked  of  him,  and  he 
found  free  entertainment  in  the  hospitals  erected  for  his  use 
along  the  roads.  His  devotions  at  the  Holy  Places  and  his 
bath  in  the  river  Jordan  were  believed  to  have  expiated  the  sin 
of  his  former  life,  and  the  shirt  he  had  worn  when  he  entered 
Jerusalem  was  laid  by  as  his  winding  sheet,  in  which  he  hoped 
to  go  to  heaven. 


The  tide  of  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  flowed  without  interrup- 
tion until  the  Seljukian  Turks,  more  fanatical  than  the  r ^ 
Arabs,  became  masters  of  Jerusalem,  and  not  only  per- 
secuted the  native  Christians,  but  cruelly  entreated,  mutilated, 
robbed,  and  often  slew  the  devout  pilgrims.  The  story  of  their 
sufferings  excited  the  pity  and  roused  the  indignation  of  Chris- 
tendom, esoecially  when  Peter  the  Hermit  returned  from  r 
his  pilgrimage  and  preached  with  the  sanction  of  the 
pope  a crusade.  Mounted  on  a mule  he  traversed  the  lands, 
and  all  eyes  turned  to  the  gaunt  monk,  in  his  coarse  hermit’s 


156 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


cloak,  with  a crucifix  in  one  hand,  and  a letter  from  the  patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem  in  the  other,  whose  eyes  flashed  fire,  and 
whose  burning  words  depicted  the  tale  of  the  Turkish  outrages 
and  stirred  his  hearers  to  resent  them.  “ Christians,”  he  cried, 
“ Christ  has  appeared  to  me,  saying,  ‘ Rise,  Peter,  finish  the 
work  thou  hast  begun ; I will  be  with  thee,  for  the  hour  is 
come  for  the  cleansing  of  my  temple.’  ” 

He  preached  with  power,  and  thousands  promised  to  make 
the  pilgrimage  of  the  Holy  Land  and  recover  the  Holy  Places 
from  the  power  of  the  infidel  Turks.  The  enthusiasm  grew 
apace.  Pope  Urban  II.  convened  a Great  Council  at 
Clermont,  in  France,  and  bade  the  vast  assembly  deliver 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Loud  rose  the  response,  u It  is  the  will 
of  God  ! it  is  the  will  of  God ! ” and  then  and  there  the  as- 
sembly declared  itself  the  army  of  God  ; and  every  member,  in 
token  of  his  new  vocation,  put  on  his  right  shoulder  the  badge 
of  a red  cross. 

The  movement  spread  with  amazing  rapidity  through  Italy, 
France,  and  Germany.  “ There  was  no  nation  so  remote,  no 
people  so  retired,  as  did  not  contribute  its  portion  to  the  host. 
The  Welshman  left  his  hunting,  the  Scot  his  hills,  the  Dane  his 
drinking  party,  the  Norwegian  his  raw  fish.  Whatever  was 
stored  in  granaries,  or  hoarded  in  chambers,  to  answer  the  hope 
of  the  husbandman,  or  the  covetousness  of  the  miser,  all  was 
deserted ; for  they  hungered  and  thirsted  after  Jerusalem 
alone.” 1 Vast  preparations  were  making  for  the  war  of 
Christendom  against  Mohammedanism,  pending  which,  Peter 
may,  the  Hermit  and  Walter  the  Pennyless,  impatient  of 
1096  delay,  departed  with  an  ill-disciplined  and  ill-provided 
multitude  of  80,000  men,  whose  outrages  were  so  enormous, 
that,  treated  as  outlaws  wherever  they  went,  they  perished  on 
the  way. 

Very  different  was  the  army  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  which 


1 William  of  Malmesbury. 


1095-1098] 


GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON . 


157 


[l  097 


started  not  long  after  from  the  banks  of  the  Maas.  It  was 
well  armed,  well  officered,  and  well  disciplined,  mim-  aug.  15, 
bered  80,000  foot  and  20,000  horse,  and  passed  without  1 096 
mishap  through  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Bulgaria  to  Constan- 
tinople. Under  the  walls  of  that  city  they  pitched  their  camp, 
waiting  for  five  other  armies  of  crusaders,  who  had  [|097 
taken  different  routes.  In  the  spring  following  they 
crossed  into  Asia,  and  the  muster  showed  a grand  total  of 
300,000  foot  and  100,000  horse  ; adding  to  that  number  the 
wives,  children,  and  attendants  of  the  crusaders,  the  multitude 
cannot  have  been  short  of  600,000.  Besides  Godfrey,  the  chief 
leaders  were  Hugh  of  Yermandois ; Robert  of  Normandy,  the 
son  of  William  the  Conqueror  ; Robert  of  Flanders  ; Bohemond 
of  Tarentum  ; Raymond  of  Toulouse  ; and  Tancred,  the  famous 
knight. 

Their  first  exploit  was  the  siege  and  capture  of  Nice, 
which,  however,  through  the  intrigues  of  the  Greek 
emperor,  Alexius,  surrendered  to  him,  and  not  to  the  crusaders. 
Their  progress  was  difficult  and  attended  with  much  suffering.  A 
dispute  between  Tancred  and  Baldwin  terminated  in  the  latter 
leaving  with  his  contingent,  and  effecting  the  conquest  of  Edessa 
in  Mesopotamia,  where  he  founded  the  first  Christian  principality 
in  the  East.  The  bulk  of  the  arm}7  advanced  to  Antioch,  and 
laid  siege  to  the  city.  It  held  out  for  seven  months,  during 
which  famine  and  sickness  thinned  the  ranks  of  the  crusaders. 
Among  the  deserters  was  Peter  the  Hermit ; at  last  jUNB  3, 
the  city  was  taken  by  the  crusaders,  who  massacred  1098 
the  inhabitants.  But  then  they  were  besieged  by  a Moham- 
medan army  of  200,000.  Their  loss  from  famine,  June  28, 
pestilence,  and  desertion  was  enormous,  but  they  van-  1098 
quished  the  Mohammedans,  and  the  road  to  Jerusalem  was 
open  to  them. 

A year  after  the  fall  of  Antioch,  the  crusaders,  now  reduced 
to  about  21,000,  caught  the  first  glimpse  of  the  Holy  City, 
and  knelt  down  in  devout  gratitude  for  the  unspeakable 


158 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


privilege.  They  wept  for  joy  and  buried  their  long  sufferings 
in  oblivion. 

The  city  was  strongly  fortified,  and  defended  by  a garrison  of 
40,000  Mohammedans.  Religious  zeal  and  enthusiasm  ani- 
mated the  courage,  and  sustained  the  efforts  of  the  crusaders, 
who,  after  a siege  of  five  weeks,  and  a sanguinary  repulse, 
carried  Jerusalem  by  storm.  Godfrey  was  the  first,  and  his 
brother  Eustace  the  second,  who  scaled  the  wall  and  entered 
the  city,  rushed  to  the  gate,  and  opened  it  to  the  crusaders. 
They  shouted,  “God  is  with  us ! It  is  the  will  of  God !”  poured 
July  14,  into  the  streets,  and  in  their  fury,  put  the  wretched 

1 099  inhabitants  to  the  sword.  The  carnage  was  so  dread- 
ful, that  of  a population  of  70,000  not  enough  were  left  to  bury 
the  dead,  and  poor  Christians  were  hired  to  perform  the  work. 
The  savage  cruelty  of  the  conquering  crusaders  was  too  horrid 
to  be  described  ; murder  was  mercy.  Godfrey  was  the  first  to 
think  of  higher  and  nobler  duties,  and  in  the  lowly  garb  of  a 
penitent,  barefooted  and  unarmed,  went  to  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  to  thank  God  for  the  victory.  His  example 
was  followed  by  the  entire  host,  who,  having  finished  the  work 
of  the  sword,  and  cleansed  their  bodies  and  garments  from  the 
blood  of  the  slain,  went  to  the  church  of  the  Resurrection  to 
join  in  the  prayers  of  praise  and  thanksgiving. 

Eight  days  after  the  capture  of  the  city  Godfrey  was  by 
July  22,  acclamation  saluted  king  of  Jerusalem  ; but  he  refused 
1 099  to  be  called  king,  and  would  only  assume  the  st}de  of 
“ Defender  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  ” ; and  when  they  offered  to 
crown  him,  he  declined,  saying  that  he  would  never  consent 
to  wear  a golden  crown,  where  the  King  of  kings  had  worn  a 
crown  of  thorns.  That  speech  was  sublime. 

His  kingdom,  or  whatever  it  was,  did  not  trouble  him  long, 
for  he  soon  fell  sick,  and  the  cherished  desire  of  his  heart,  that 
July  8,  he  might  be  permitted  to  die  near  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 

1100  Was  granted  him;  he  died  young,  his  brief  reign  was 
marked  by  firmness,  prudence,  and  moderation,  and  his  body 


1099-1100.]  GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON. 


159 


was  interred  on  Mount  Calvary  near  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The 
great  poet  Tasso  has  sounded  his  praises  in  his  u Jerusalem 
Delivered.,, 

Thus  was  the  Holy  Sepulchre  delivered  from  the  Arabs. 
Baldwin,  the  brother  of  Godfrey,  succeeded  him  and  assumed 
the  title  of  King  of  Jerusalem.  Bohemond  became  Prince  of 
Antioch.  The  three  kingdoms  or  principalities  of  Edessa, 
Antioch,  and  Jerusalem  increased  in  size  and  strength,  and 
resisted  for  about  fifty  years  the  attacks  of  the  Mohammedans. 

REFERENCES. 

Milman,  “Latin  Christianity,”  vol.  IV.  pp.  15-51;  Mosheim, 
“Ecclesiastical  History,”  vol.  II.  pp.  123-132,  N.Y.  1821;  Duller, 
“History  of  the  German  People,”  vol.  I.  pp.  296-300;  Michaud, 
“ History  of  the  Crusades.” 


160 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


1435-1506]  COLUMBUS. 

Though  the  American  Continent  may  have  been  visited  by 
adventurous  Norsemen  more  than  eight  hundred  years  ago,  no 
sure  trace  of  their  presence  has  been  found  here,  and  the  true 
record  of  their  voyage  has  probably  perished,  and  was  certainly 
unknown  in  Europe  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

At  that  time  the  most  learned  men  of  the  Old  World  were 
not  only  very  ignorant  about  the  geography  of  the  earth,  but 
held  very  ridiculous  views.  They  thought  that  the  sea,  beyond 
the  islands  known  to  them,  was  a watery  chaos  whose  waves 
rose  to  the  height  of  lofty  mountains,  and  rolled  in  irresisti- 
ble cataracts  into  bottomless  abysses,  which  would  swallow  up 
any  vessels  daring  enough  to  approach  them.  The  spherical 
shape  of  the  earth,  they  imagined,  gave  to  the  ocean  a slope 
towards  the  antipodes,  so  steep  that  though  vessels  might  sail 
down  that  slope,  they  would  never  be  able  to  return. 

They  knew  that  there  was  the  great  ocean,  and  believed,  as 
we  learn  from  a map  made  in  the  year  a.h.  1492,  that  it  sepa- 
rated Europe  from  Asia ; in  the  centre  of  that  map,  on  the  line 
of  the  equator,  is  placed  a large  sand-bank,  and  about  midway 
between  that  sand-bank  and  the  East  Indies  appears  Japan,  sur- 
rounded by  many  islands.  It  was  the  best  map  extant,  and  the 
best  scientific  guide  Columbus  could  procure  or  construct  before 
he  undertook  his  voyage  of  discovery. 

He  was  the  eldest  son  of  a Genoese  wool-carder,  and  had  two 
brothers  and  a sister.  Christopher  was  born  in  1435  or  1436, 
and  from  a child  showed  great  fondness  for  the  sea.  His  father 
sent  him  to  Pavia,  where  he  studied  geometry,  geography,  as- 
tronomy, astrology,  and  navigation,  and  learnt  the  little  the 


1435-1506.] 


COLUMBUS . 


161 


schools  could  teach  him,  without  much  difficulty.  In  his  four- 
teenth 3'ear  he  went  to  sea,  and  in  consequence  of  a shipwreck, 
caused  by  his  vessel  taking  fire  in  the  roads  of  Lisbon,  r1470 
settled  in  that  city.  By  that  time  he  had  long  attained 
manhood,  and  his  pluck  and  courage  may  be  learned  from  the 
way  he  made  his  escape  from  the  burning  ship.  He  threw  him- 
self into  the  water,  seized  an  oar,  with  which  he  supported  him- 
self, and  swam  ashore. 

He  had  been  in  the  habit  of  drawing  maps  and  charts  before, 
and  their  sale  had  afforded  him  a scanty  support.  At  Lisbon 
he  followed  this  occupation  with  considerable  success,  for  his 
maps  and  globes  were  the  best  that  could  be  had,  and  the  Por- 
tuguese mariners,  who  prized  them  very  highly,  would  constant^7 
frequent  his  shop,  and  discourse  with  him  of  the  sea,  of  adven- 
tures, and  of  discoveries.  At  Lisbon  he  fell  in  love  with 
Felipa  de  Perestrello,  the  daughter  of  an  Italian  nobleman  in  the 
Portuguese  service,  and  married  her  ; she  was  the  mother  of  his 
son  Diego.  From  the  papers  of  his  father-in-law  he  gleaned 
much  accurate  information  about  the  distant  seas  of  India,  which 
he  embodied  in  his  maps. 

He  knew  that  the  earth  was  round,  but,  underrating  its  cir- 
cumference by  some  thousands  of  miles,  concluded  that  the 
passage  to  Asia  across  the  Atlantic,  of  which  he  was  fully  con- 
vinced, was  much  shorter  than  the  navigators  usually  thought. 
This  supposed  nearness  of  the  Indies  seemed  to  him  to  be  con- 
firmed by  the  testimony  of  the  most  experienced  sailors  and 
pilots.  Some  had  seen,  floating  off  the  Azores,  branches  of 
trees  unknown  in  Europe  ; others  had  picked  up  pieces  of  wood, 
carved,  but  not  with  steel  tools  ; they  spoke  of  huge  pine-trees, 
hollowed  into  canoes,  with  room  for  80  rowers ; and  even  of 
corpses  of  white  or  copper-colored  men,  whose  features  were 
unlike  those  of  the  known  races  of  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia. 

The  solution  of  this  great  mystery  of  discovering  the  short 
passage  to  Asia,  and  to  secure  the  means  necessary  to  its 
accomplishment,  became  the  purpose  of  his  life,  to  which  he  de- 


162 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


voted  all  his  energies.  Prejudice,  envy,  indifference,  ridicule, 
the  loss  of  his  business,  and  of  his  beloved  wife,  obstacles  and 
difficulties  which  beset  his  path  for  many  long  and  weary  years, 
could  not  break  his  courage,  and  make  him  abandon  his  projects. 
At  last  he  found  a powerful  and  enthusiastic  friend  in  the  per- 
son of  Isabella,  the  queen  of  Castile,  who,  in  the  extremity  of 
his  disappointments,  undertook  to  be  at  the  charge  of  his  pro- 
posed expedition,  saying:  UI  will  undertake  the  enterprise 
alone,  for  my  crown  of  Castile.  I will  pawn  my  diamonds  and 
jewels  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  expedition. ” A treaty 
April  17,  between  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  and  Columbus  was 
1 492  signed  in  the  plain  of  Granada,  in  virtue  of  which  he 
was  made  hereditary  admiral  and  viceroy  of  all  the  lands  which 
his  discoveries  might  secure  to  Spain,  and  promised  the  tenth 
part  of  all  the  profit  that  might  accrue  from  them. 

The  expedition  was  fitted  out,  and  sailed  from  Palos  in  An- 
aug.  3,  dalusia.  It  consisted  of  three  ships,  the  Santa  Maria , 
1492  the  Pinta , and  the  Nina.  The  first  of  these  only  was 
a fair-sized  and  decked  vessel,  and  had  four  masts  ; the  others 
had  only  half-decks,  and  only  two  masts,  one  with  a square,  the 
other  with  a triangular  lateen-sail.  They  carried  provisions 
for  a year,  and  their  entire  crews  numbered  only  120  men. 

After  a quick  run  to  the  Canaries,  where  he  spent  three  weeks 
to  refit,  he  began  the  exploration  of  the  unknown  Atlantic.  His 
sailors  began  to  be  afraid,  and  became  utterly  prostrate  in  body 
and  mind  ; Columbus  encouraged  them  with  the  glowing  descrip- 
tion of  the  beauty  and  wealth  of  the  lands  to  which  they  were 
sailing.  This  seemed  to  cheer  them  up,  but  they  were  fright- 
ened at  the  great  distance,  and  he  was  obliged  to  subtract  from 
the  record  a certain  number  of  miles,  in  order  to  make  them 
believe  that  they  had  only  gone  half  the  distance  they  had  really 
traversed. 

The  discovery  (until  then  unknown)  that  the  magnetic  needle 
began  to  va^  not  only  disconcerted  Columbus,  but  filled  the 
sailors  with  consternation,  who  believed  that  they  were  going 


1492.] 


COLUMBUS . 


163 


to  certain  destruction.  He  soothed  their  fears  with  the  ingeni- 
ous explanation  of  the  variation  of  the  needle,  as  caused  by  the 
revolution  of  new  stars  round  the  pole,  to  which  the  compass 
responded.  Thus  they  progressed  for  many  a day  amid  hopes 
and  fears.  Columbus  hardly  slept,  and  nothing  escaped  his 
eye ; the  appearance  of  a heron  and  a tropical  bird  was  pro- 
phetic of  land  ; the  waves  were  laden  with  perfume  ; plants  were 
floating  on  them,  still  full  of  sap,  and  a little  sailor,  in  the  shape 
of  a live  crab,  clung  to  a tuft  of  grass.  The  sea  presently 
changed  its  color  and  its  temperature,  betokening  a shallow  or 
uneven  bottom.  They  surely  were  nearing  land,  and  welcomed 
it  every  evening  and  every  morning  in  the  shifting  clouds. 

They  had  been  sailing  before  the  trade-wind,  which  wafted 
them  they  knew  not  whither,  but  a change  of  wind  from  the 
opposite  quarter  revived  their  hopes,  to  be  followed  by  disap- 
pointment, and  the  murmurs  of  discontent  and  despair ; they 
thought  they  were  approaching  the  cataracts  of  the  ocean,  to  be 
hurled  into  the  bottomless  abyss,  and  talked  of  compelling  the 
pilots  to  put  about,  and  of  throwing  Columbus  overboard.  He 
remained  calm,  and  defied  them  by  his  firm  and  resolute 
bearing. 

On  the  7th  of  October  flocks  of  birds  pursued  their  flight  in  a 
south-westerly  direction,  and  Columbus  steered  hopefully  in  the 
same  course  for  two  days ; but  when  the  third  day  came  round, 
and  no  land  in  sight,  the  despair  of  the  crew  changed  into  fury, 
and  they  roundly  refused  to  sail  further.  Columbus  reasoned 
with  them,  but  their  clamor  increasing,  he  resolutely  told  them 
that  it  was  useless  to  murmur,  as,  no  matter  what  might  happen, 
he  was  resolved  to  persevere. 

At  sunrise  of  the  second  day  the  sailors  picked  up  a plank 
hewn  by  an  axe,  a carved  stick,  a bough  of  thorn  with  berries, 
and  a bird’s-nest  built  on  a branch,  full  of  eggs,  on  which  the 
parent  bird  was  sitting  The  mutineers  took  courage,  implored 
the  pardon  of  Columbus,  and  sang  praises  to  God.  On  the 
night  of  that  day,  Columbus  saw  a gleam  of  fire,  coming  and 


164 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A  D. 


going,  on  the  level  of  the  sea.  Two  of  his  friends  identified  it 
as  a light  on  the  shore. 

Before  daybreak  a cannon-shot,  fired  by  the  Pinta , which 
was  sailing  in  advance,  confirmed  his  expectations.  It  was  the 
signal,  agreed  upon,  of  land  in  sight,  and  the  jubilant  shout 
of  “Land  ho!  ” arose  from  all  the  ships.  The  sun  rose,  and 
the  delighted  adventurers  beheld  a beautiful  island  smiling  in 
his  rays. 

The  first  impulse  of  all  was  to  hasten  ashore,  but  Columbus, 
conscious  of  the  importance  of  the  discovery,  and  grateful  for 
the  providential  fulfilment  of  his  hopes,  felt  that  the  soil  of  the 
New  World,  as  yet  untrodden  by  European  foot,  ought  to  be 
approached  in  a manner  worthy  of  God,  of  Spain,  and  of  him- 
self, and  therefore  restrained  himself  and  his  crew  from  landing 
forthwith  ; he  donned  his  admiral’s  uniform,  took  the  flag  of  Spain, 
and  to  the  strains  of  martial  music,  led  the  boats  to  shore.  He 
was  the  first  to  land  ; his  first  act  was  one  of  solemn  and  grateful 
devotion  : he  knelt  down,  kissed  the  ground,  and  wept  for  joy. 
When  he  raised  his  head,  he  said  : ^ Almighty  and  eternal  God, 
who,  by  the  energy  of  thy  creative  word,  hast  made  the  firma- 
ment, the  earth,  and  the  sea : blessed  and  glorified  be  thy  name 
in  all  places  ! May  thy  majesty  and  dominion  be  exalted  for- 
ever and  ever,  as  thou  hast  permitted  thy  holy  name  to  be  made 
known  and  spread  by  the  most  humble  of  thy  servants  in  this 
hitherto  unknown  portion  of  thy  kingdom.” 

He  then  baptized  this  land  in  the  name  of  Christ,  — the  island 
of  San  Salvador,  — and  raising  his  sword,  took  solemn  posses- 
sion of  it  in  the  name  and  under  the  flag  of  Spain.  Then  all 
his  men,  in  the  exuberance  of  their  joy  and  gratitude,  and  pro- 
foundly penitent,  fell  at  his  feet,  kissed  his  hands,  and  sounded 
his  praises. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  island,  in  their  native  costume  of  cop- 
per-colored skin  marked  with  bright  pigments,  stood  by  in  gen- 
tle wonderment  and  admiration,  and  deemed  that  the  Spaniards 
and  their  ships  had  come  from  heaven.  They  called  their 


1492.] 


COLUMBUS. 


165 


Oct.  12, 

1492 


Oct.  27,  1 492 
Dec.  6,  1492 


island  “ Guanahani,”  which  is  one  of  the  Bahama 
group,  and  was  discovered  on  October  12. 

The  Indians  had  adorned  their  persons  with  ornaments  of 
pure  gold,  which  excited  the  cupidity  of  the  Spaniards.  They 
cheerfully  exchanged  them  for  the  merest  trifles,  and  when  the 
Spaniards  asked  them  by  signs  whence  that  metal  came,  they 
pointed  to  the  south,  and  in  that  direction  they  sailed  in  quest 
of  their  imaginary  land  of  gold,  and  discovered  first 
Cuba,  and  soon  afterwards  Hayti,  to  which  Colum- 
bus gave  the  name  of  Hispaniola.  Having  lost, 
through  the  carelessness  of  his  pilot,  one  of  his  vessels,  and 
believing  that  he  was  in  sight  of  the  gold  country,  he  built  a 
fort,  in  which  he  placed  a garrison  of  40  men  under  the  com- 
mand of  Pedro  de  Arana,  and  after  instructing  them  to  main- 
tain friendly  relations  with  the  Indians,  set  out  on  his  return  to 
Europe  to  announce  his  triumph. 

The  voyage  was  very  tempestuous,  and  Columbus  was  not 
onl}T  in  peril  of  life  from  the  sea,  but  from  his  mutinous  and 
superstitious  crew,  who  talked  of  throwing  him  overboard  in 
order  to  pacify  the  angiy  element.  Meanwhile  the  good  man, 
indifferent  about  their  moods,  thought  only  of  their  safety,  and 
how,  if  they  must  perish  in  the  storm,  the  record  of  his  discov- 
ery might  not  be  wholly  lost.  So  he  wrote  brief  accounts  of 
his  voyage  on  strips  of  parchment,  closed  them  up,  some  in 
rolls  of  wax,  others  in  cedar  cases,  and  threw  them  into  the  sea, 
hoping  that  after  his  death  they  might  be  carried  to  the  shore. 

Fortunately  the  water-logged  vessel  survived  the  storms,  and 
Columbus,  covered  with  glory  and  honors,  was  permitted  to  tell 
the  grand  story  of  his  discovery  to  the  sovereigns  of  Portugal 
and  Spain,  to  the  great  and  the  learned,  and  to  the  delighted 
people  who,  with  one  accord,  thought  that  “ None  could  com- 
pare with  him.” 

What  became  of  those  cases  with  the  strips  of  parchment  is 
not  known  ; but  not  very  long  ago  a European  sailor,  while  get- 
ting ballast  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  opposite  Gibraltar,  picked 


166 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[A.B. 


up  a petrified  cocoanut  and  gave  it  to  his  captain.  Curious  as 
to  the  internal  condition  of  the  nut,  he  opened  it,  and  found  in 
the  shell  a piece  of  parchment  with  some  writing  on  it  in  the 
Gothic  character.  A Spanish  scholar  deciphered  it,  and  read : 
u We  cannot  survive  the  storm  one  day  longer.  We  are  be- 
tween Spain  and  the  newly  discovered  Eastern  isles.  If  the 
caravel  founders,  may  some  one  pick  up  this  testimony ! — 
Christopher  Columbus .” 

If  the  caravel  which  bore  Columbus  had  foundered,  and  the 
other  cases  with  the  strips  of  parchment  had  been  as  long  in 
the  sea  or  on  unknown  coasts  as  the  cocoanut-sliell,  the  discov- 
ery of  America  might  not  have  been  divulged  until  the  year 
1851,  or  358  years  after  that  great  event. 

The  honors  awarded  to  Columbus  roused  the  envy  and  jeal- 
ousy of  not  a few.  One  day  when  he  was  dining  with  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  a courtier  taunted  him  with  the  question  if 
he  thought  that  no  one  else  would  have  discovered  the  New 
World  if  he  had  not  been  born. 

Columbus  did  not  answrer  it,  but  taking  an  egg  in  his  hand, 
held  it  up,  and  asked  the  whole  company  present,  if  any  one 
could  make  it  stand  upright.  All  were  perplexed  and  gave  it 
up.  Columbus  cracked  the  shell  at  one  end,  and  of  course 
made  it  stand  upright.  A better,  a more  noble,  and  a more 
modest  reply  he  could  not  have  made. 

Columbus  spent  about  six  months  in  Spain  prior  to  his 
Sept.  25,  second  expedition,  which  consisted  of  three  large 
1493  ships  and  fourteen  caravels,  and  numbered  1,500  men, 
of  whom  some  were  priests,  but  most,  unprincipled  adventurers. 
The  fleet  left  Cadiz,  and  steering  on  a more  southerly  course, 
discovered  the  island  of  Guadeloupe,  passed  through  the  group 
of  the  Caribbees,  and  soon  made  Hispaniola ; it  was  night  when 
he  reached  the  gulf  in  which  he  had  planted  his  colony,  and  he 
fired  a salute  to  announce  his  return.  It  remained  unanswered, 
and  at  daybreak  he  beheld  with  sorrow  the  ruins  of  his  fort 
and  the  bones  of  the  Spaniards  bleaching  on  the  shore.  He 


1493-1494.] 


COLUMBUS . 


167 


wept  over  their  crimes  which  the  natives  had  avenged  in  their 
death,  and  founded  another  settlement  in  a different  may, 
part  of  the  island,  which  he  called  Isabella.  1494 

He  then  cruised  along  the  coast  of  Cuba,  which  he  thought 
was  a continent,  and  discovered  Jamaica.  In  Cuba,  where  he 
established  friendly  relations  with  the  natives,  he  held  a relig- 
ious service,  at  which  they  were  present.  At  its  close  one  of 
their  old  men  said  to  him : 44  What  thou  hast  done  is  well,  for 
it  appears  to  be  thy  worship  of  the  universal  God.  They 
say  that  thou  comest  to  these  lands  with  great  might  and  irre- 
sistible power.  Now  hear  what  our  fathers  have  told  us. 
When  by  the  will  of  God  the  souls  of  men  depart  from  their 
bodies,  they  go  some  to  a land  without  sun  and  without  trees, 
others  to  a region  of  beauty  and  delight,  according  as  they 
have  acted  ill  or  well  here  below  by  doing  evil  or  good  to  their 
fellows.  If,  therefore,  thou  art  to  die  like  us,  have  a care  to 
do  no  wrong  to  those  who  have  never  injured  thee.” 

Las  Casas,  who  relates  this  discourse,  is  good  authority.  It 
had  been  well  for  the  Spaniards,  had  they  practised  that  un- 
known religion  whose  simple  precepts  and  pure  morals  con- 
trasted so  strongly  with  the  vices  and  crimes  which  so  speedily 
turned  the  New  World,  then  verily  a paradise  of  God,  into  a 
pandemonium  of  wickedness. 

The  natives  of  the  West  Indies,  as  Columbus  found  them, 
were  a good  and  noble  race.  u There  is  nowhere  in  the  uni- 
verse,” he  said,  44  a better  nation  or  a better  country.  They 
love  their  neighbors  as  themselves  : their  language  is  always  soft 
and  gracious,  and  the  smile  of  kindness  is  ever  on  their  lips.” 

Columbus,  after  a long  and  fatiguing  voyage,  returned  to 
Isabella  in  a dying  state,  and  lay  for  a long  while  unconscious 
on  a bed  of  sickness.  He  awoke  to  rejoice  with  devout  grati- 
tude in  the  providential  presence  of  his  brother  Bartholomew, 
who  had  come  out  to  his  assistance,  and  to  whom,  during  the 
long  months  of  his  sickness,  he  committed  the  government  of 
the  island. 


168 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D 


1496] 


The  cruelty  and  perfidy  of  the  Spaniards  roused  the  natives, 
but  they  had  to  succumb  to  their  oppressors,  who  hunted  them 
by  means  of  trained  dogs,  and  sold  them  as  slaves.  Columbus, 
on  his  recovery,  restored  order  and  induced  them  to  submit  to 
the  payment  of  a small  tribute  in  gold  and  produce,  “ rather  as 
a token  of  alliance  than  of  slavery.” 

In  consequence  of  calumnies  set  on  foot  by  his  enemies  at 
court,  Columbus  was  recalled  ; but  having  established 
his  innocence,  and  being  empowered  to  renew  his  dis- 
may  30,  coveries,  he  fitted  out  a third  expedition  of  six  vessels, 

1498  and  set  sail.  Steering  more  to  the  southward,  he  dis- 

covered and  named  the  island  of  Trinidad  ; he  also  coasted  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  the  true  continent,  and  though  he 
spent  a night  under  his  sail  on  the  mainland,  he  had  no  suspicion 
that  it  was  the  shore  of  the  unknown  world. 

Revisiting  Hispaniola,  he  found  to  his  sorrow  that  the  affairs 
of  the  island  were  in  most  distressing  condition.  Ojeda,  a 
daring  adventurer,  stole  the  natives  and  shipped  them  off  as 
slaves.  Roldan,  an  overseer,  with  a band  of  the  refuse  of 
Spain,  had  set  up  a sort  of  rival  government,  and  intrigued 
with  the  neighboring  tribes  against  the  authority  of  Bar- 
tholomew. Complete  anarchy  prevailed.  A young  Spaniard 
had  won  the  heart  and  desired  to  marry  the  daughter  of  queen 
Anacoana,  famed  throughout  the  island  for  her  beaut}^, 
poetical  talent,  and  wealth.  She  was  the  widow  of  the  chief 
whom  Ojeda  had  stolen,  handcuffed,  and  hurried  on  shipboard, 
and  who  had  died  on  the  vo}Tage.  Roldan  opposed  the  mar- 
riage, seized  the  young  lover,  and  sent  him  away  to  be  tried  at 
Isabella.  Ovando  on  an  expedition  of  survey  was  kindly  and 
hospitably  entertained  by  Anacoana,  who  at  his  instance  had 
invited  30  Indian  chiefs  to  be  present  at  the  festivities  she 
had  arranged  in  honor  of  the  Spaniards.  They  proposed  a 
sham  fight  to  be  witnessed  by  the  queen  and  the  chiefs  from 
a balcony,  while  the  unarmed  people  stood  around  in  the  open 
space.  At  a given  signal,  the  cavalry  sabred  the  people  and 


1496-1500.] 


COLUMBUS . 


169 


rode  them  down,  the  infantry  surrounded  the  queen’s  house, 
set  it  on  fire,  and  doomed  her  guests  to  death  among  the 
flames.  Anacoana  was  hung. 

The  horrid  deed  maddened  the  Indians  to  desperate  resis- 
tance, hut  their  fate  was  sealed,  and  could  not  be  averted  by 
the  virtue  and  kindness  of  Columbus,  who  had  asked  the  court 
to  send  him  a judge  of  high  rank  to  aid  him  in  the  restoration 
of  order. 

The  enemies  of  Columbus  had  poisoned  the  mind  of  Ferdi- 
nand against  him,  and  he  sent  Bobadilla,  clothed  with  vaguely 
defined  powers,  to  Hispaniola.  On  his  arrival  he  had  Colum- 
bus cast  into  chains,  confined  in  a dungeon,  and  at  last,  on 
the  worthless  depositions  of  as  worthless  witnesses, 
adjudged  him  worthy  of  banishment,  and  ordered  him 
to  be  sent  to  Spain. 

When  the  vessel  had  sailed,  the  commanders  would  fain  have 
removed  his  fetters,  but  he  refused,  saying:  u No,  my  sover- 
eigns have  written  to  me  to  submit  to  Bobadilla.  It  is  in  their 
names  that  I have  been  put  in  these  irons,  which  I will  wear 
until  they  themselves  order  them  to  be  removed ; and  I will 
afterwards  preserve  them  as  relics  and  memorials  of  the  reward 
of  my  services.” 

That  promise  he  kept,  for  he  carried  them  with  him  wherever 
he  went,  had  them  hung  up  in  his  sight,  and  in  his  will  ordered 
them  to  be  put  by  his  side  in  his  coffin. 

His  outrageous  treatment  roused  the  indignation  of  Cadiz, 
and  especially  of  Isabella,  who  commanded  that  his  chains 
should  be  changed  into  a robe  of  honor,  and  his  jailers  re- 
placed by  a royal  escort,  charged  to  bring  him  to  Granada. 
He  fell  at  her  knees,  and  his  eloquent  defence  procured  his 
instant  acquittal  of  the  charges,  which  the  sovereigns  refused 
even  to  examine. 

Bobadilla  was  recalled,  and  replaced  by  Ovando,  whose  want 
of  humanity  is  recorded  in  former  and  subsequent  paragraphs. 

Although  nearly  70  years  old,  Columbus,  after  all  his  suffer- 


[1500 


170 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


ings,  was  impatient  of  rest,  and  undertook  a fourth  expedition, 
March  2,  in  which  he  was  joined  by  his  brother  Bartholomew 
\ 502  and  his  son  Fernando.  It  consisted  of  four  poor  ves- 
sels whose  crews  mustered  only  150  strong.  He  embarked  at 
Cadiz  and  had  stormy  weather ; the  squadron  lay  off  Hispaniola 
with  broken  masts,  torn  sails,  and  short  of  water  and  provis- 
ions ; he  knew  that  a terrible  hurricane  was  about  to  break  out, 
and  despatched  a boat  to  Ovando  asking  leave  to  take  shelter 
at  Isabella.  Ovando  refused  it  without  mercy,  and  the  old  man 
sadly  and  indignantly  found  a safe  retreat  in  another  part  of  the 
island  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  governor.  After  the  hur- 
ricane, he  went  to  Jamaica,  and  landed  on  the  continent  in  the 
bay  of  Honduras. 

For  60  days  he  cruised  about  in  stormy  weather  in  search  of 
the  passage  which  he  thought  united  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific, 
and  lost  a vessel  with  50  men  at  the  mouth  of  a river  which  in 
memory  of  the  calamity  he  called  El  Bio  del  Desastre , or  the 
River  of  Disaster. 

In  their  search  of  gold  the  men  of  Columbus  became  embroiled 
with  the  Indians,  and  after  much  loss  and  great  sufferings,  his 
three  crazy  caravels  sailed  slowly  towards  Hispaniola ; one 
foundered  as  they  were  nearing  the  shore,  and  the  others  held 
together  just  long  enough  to  be  beached  on  the  sand 
of  an  unknown  bay  in  Jamaica. 

He  tied  them  together  with  cables,  connected  their  decks  with 
planks,  and  covered  them  with  an  awning  ; and  though  the 
natives  furnished  him  with  provisions,  the  presence  of  a muti- 
nous crew  made  his  condition  perilous  in  the  extreme.  His  only 
hope  was  the  help  of  Ovando,  and  an  Indian  canoe  the  only  craft 
he  could  provide  for  trusty  messengers  to  traverse  the  fifty 
leagues  of  sea  which  separated  him  from  Hispaniola. 

Such  messengers  were  found  in  the  persons  of  the  heroic 
Diego  Mendez  and  Bartholomew  Fiesco,  who  volunteered  to 
perform,  and  did  perform,  the  daring  feat  of  crossing  the  sea  in 
frail  canoes. 


1503] 


1502-1506.] 


COLUMBUS . 


I7i 


After  ten  days  they  reached  Hispaniola,  and  the  faithful 
Mendez  delivered  the  admiral’s  message  to  Ovando.  But  the 
help  it  begged  was  delayed  for  many  months,  during  which 
Columbus  and  his  brother  were  exposed  to  the  angry  insults  and 
the  violent  attempts  of  the  rebellious  crews.  At  length  he  sent 
a barrel  of  wine  and  a side  of  bacon  by  the  hands  of  Escobar, 
promising  the  speedy  despatch  of  a vessel.  After  many  weary 
months,  a vessel  which  Mendez  had  fitted  up  at  the  expense  of 
Columbus,  accompanied  by  another  sent  by  Ovando,  arrived, 
and  rescued  the  aged  admiral  from  his  terrible  situation. 

After  spending  some  time  with  Ovando,  he  landed,  Nov.  7, 
broken  in  health,  but  not  in  spirit,  at  San  Lucar,  in  1504 
Spain. 

His  kind  protectress,  queen  Isabella,  died  soon  after  his 
arrival,  and  he  himself  closed  his  eventful  and  noble  may  20, 
career  in  poverty  at  Valladolid.  1506 

Ferdinand,  ashamed  of  his  neglect  and  ingratitude  to  the 
man  who  gave  him  an  empire,  gave  him  a royal  funeral  and 
erected  to  his  honor  a monument  inscribed  with  the  motto,  u To 
Castile  and  Leon  Columbus  gave  a New  World.”  His  remains, 
and  afterwards  those  of  his  son  Diego,  were  removed  from  their 
successive  resting-places  in  Spanish  cathedrals,  and  interred,  in 
1536,  in  the  principal  chapel  of  the  cathedral  at  San  Domingo, 
but  disinterred  again,  and  removed  to  Havana,  in  the  island  of 
Cuba. 

The  American  Continent  should  have  been  called  after  his 
name,  as  that  of  its  first  discoverer,  one  of  the  best  and  noblest 
of  men  who  crowned  the  shining  qualities  of  knowledge,  wis- 
dom, enterprise,  and  valor,  with  the  yet  nobler  graces  of 
philanthropy,  the  forgiveness  of  injuries,  and  true  piety. 

REFERENCES. 

Bancroft,  “ History  of  the  United  States  ” ; Prescott,  “ Ferdinand 
and  Isabella W.  Irving,  “Life  and  Voyages  of  Columbus Lamar 
tine,  “Columbus.5' 


172 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


A.D. 


527.  Justinian  I.  emperor  at  Constantinople. 

529.  The  “ Code  ” set  forth  April  7. 

532.  Sedition  of  the  Nika  at  Constantinople. 

533.  The  “ Pandects  ” or  “ Digests  ” set  forth  Dec.  30. 

536.  Belisarius  enters  Rome. 

546.  Totila  takes  Rome. 

548.  Belisarius  recalled  from  Italy. 

554.  Narses  overthrows  the  Gothic  monarchy.  Narses  exarch. 
565.  Death  of  Belisarius,  March  13.  Death  of  Justinian,  Nov.  14. 
569.  Birth  of  Mohammed. 

609.  Mohammed  assumes  the  character  of  a prophet,  and 
preaches  at  Mecca. 

612.  Mohammed  begins  to  proclaim  his  revelations. 

622.  Mohammed’s  flight  from  Mecca,  July  16,  the  Hegira,  or 
Hejira,  the  era  of  the  Mohammedans. 

630.  Capture  of  Mecca. 

632.  Death  of  Mohammed,  aged  63,  June  8. 

682.  Birth  of  Boniface,  or  Winfrid. 

723.  Boniface,  bishop  of  Germany. 

732.  Boniface,  archbishop  of  Germany. 

742.  Birth  of  Charlemagne. 

752.  Childeric  dethroned,  and  Pepin  crowned  and  proclaimed 
king  of  the  Franks. 

755.  Martyrdom  of  Boniface. 

756.  Pepin  bestows  the  exarchate  upon  the  pope.  Origin  of 

the  papal  temporal  sovereignty. 

768.  Charlemagne  and  Carloman  succeed  Pepin. 

771.  Charlemagne  sole  king  of  the  Franks. 

772.  Commencement  of  the  Saxon  wars. 

774.  Overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  by  Charle- 
magne. 

778.  Charlemagne  conquers  the  Spanish  Marche. 

786.  Wittekind  and  Albion  submit  to  Charlemagne  and  are 
baptized. 

795.  Death  of  pope  Hadrian.  Accession  of  pope  Leo  III. 

800.  Charlemagne  is  crowned  emperor  of  the  West,  by  Leo,  at 
Rome,  on  Christmas  Day. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


173 


A.D.  814. 

849. 

871. 

876. 

878. 

893. 

901. 

1072. 

1094. 

1096. 

1097. 

1098. 

1099. 

1100. 

1435. 

1492. 

1493. 
1498. 

1498. 


1500. 

1502. 

1504. 

1506. 


Death  of  Charlemagne  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Birth  of  Alfred  the  Great. 

Alfred  the  Great,  king  of  England. 

The  Danes  invade  Wessex. 

The  Danes,  defeated  by  Alfred,  obtain  the  Danelagh. 

The  Danes,  under  Hasting,  invade  England. 

Death  of  Alfred  the  Great. 

The  Seljukian  Turks  conquer  Jerusalem. 

Peter  the  Hermit  proclaims  a crusade. 

The  First  Crusade  under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  etc. 

The  crusaders  take  Nice. 

The  crusaders  take  Antioch. 

The  crusaders  take  Jerusalem.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
“ Defender  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.” 

Death  of  Godfrey.  His  brother  Baldwin  becomes  king 
of  Jerusalem. 

Birth  of  Columbus. 

Columbus  discovers  America. 

Second  voyage  of  Columbus. 

Third  voyage  of  Columbus.  Discovery  of  Trinidad  and 
New  Spain. 

Yasco  de  Gama  doubles  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
arrives  at  Calicut,  in  India,  May.  John  and  Sebastian 
Cabot  discover  Newfoundland  and  explore  the  coast  of 
North  America. 

Columbus  is  sent  back  to  Spain  in  chains. 

Fourth  and  last  voyage  of  Columbus.  1502-1504. 
Columbus  returns  to  Spain. 

Death  of  Columbus. 


III.  MODERN  HISTORY. 


III. 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


MARTIN  LUTHER.  [i483-i546 

The  father  of  Martin  Luther  was  a humble  miner  atEisleben, 
in  the  Harz  region,  and  his  mother  a good  woman  of  exemplary 
virtue.  Martin  was  born  Nov.  10,  1483.  He  went  to  school, 
first  at  Mansfeld,  and  afterwards  at  Magdeburg  and  Eisenach. 
In  the  latter  place  he  attracted  the  notice  and  found  a hospita- 
ble home  under  the  roof  of  a good  lady  of  the  name  of  Cotta. 
The  way  she  came  to  take  notice  of  him  was  peculiar : Martin 
being  very  poor,  was  wont,  like  other  poor  boys  in  those  days, 
to  earn  an  honest  penny  by  singing  at  the  doors  of  charitable 
people  ; his  good  appearance,  serious  demeanor,  and  fine  tenor 
voice  struck  the  worthy  Frau  Cotta,  and  thus  he  became  an 
inmate  of  the  mayor’s  house,  for  her  husband  was  the  mayor  or 
burgomaster  of  Eisenach. 

From  that  place  he  went  to  the  university  of  Erfurt,  where 
he  studied  law,  the  classics,  and  philosophy.  One  day  r 
he  saw  in  the  library,  for  the  first  time  in  his  life,  a 
complete  Latin  Bible,  and  was  surprised  at  the  volume  of  its 
contents,  for  until  then  he  had  thought  that  his  service-book 
contained  all  of  the  Scriptures.  His  interest  being  thus  excited, 
two  circumstances  arose  about  this  time,  which  induced  him, 
although  he  had  taken  the  degree  of  a Doctor  of  Philosophy,  to 
exchange  the  study  of  the  law  for  that  of  theology. 


176 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


1507] 


One  day,  as  he  was  about  to  pay  a visit  to  his  parents,  he 
went  to  say  good-bye  to  Alexis,  his  most  intimate  friend,  and 
was  shocked  to  find  him  assassinated  in  his  room.  Returning 
from  that  visit,  as  he  was  travelling  along  the  road  in  a heavy 
thunderstorm,  a thunderbolt  struck  the  earth  so  close  to  him, 
that  his  escape  seemed  a miracle.  These  two  incidents  deter- 
i r 05—1 507]  ™nec^  c^°^ce?  an6  led  him  to  spend  two  years 
in  the  Augustine  convent  at  Erfurt,  where  he  was 
ordained  priest. 

His  fine  scholarship  procured  him  an  appointment  as  teacher 
in  the  newly-founded  university  of  Wittenberg,  and 
his  eloquence,  which  was  said,  by  one  of  his  friends, 
u to  have  been  born,  not  on  his  lips,  but  in  his  soul,”  led  to 
his  election  as  a public  preacher. 

The  order  to  which  he  belonged  sent  him  on  a mission  to 
-1  Rome,  and  upon  his  return  to  Wittenberg,  he  pursued 
with  great  enthusiasm  the  study  of  the  Greek  and 
Hebrew  tongues.  It  is  said  that  he  put  a literal  construction  on 
the  solemn  words  of  the  oath  which  he  was  required  to  take  at 
the  time  of  his  promotion  to  the  degree  of  a Doctor  of  Divinity, 
and  agreeably  to  their  tenor  resolved  u to  devote  his  whole  life  to 
study,  and  faithfully  to  expound  and  defend  the  Holy  Scripture.” 

Pope  Leo  X.,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  funds  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  at  Rome,  proclaimed  a general 
pardon,  or  plenary  indulgence,  and  committed  the  matter  for 
German}^  to  the  elector  archbishop  of  Mentz,  who  delegated  its 
execution  to  the  mendicant  order  of  the  Dominicans.  John 
Tetzel,  a member  of  that  order,  gave  great  offence  by  his 
methods  of  offering  these  indulgences,  without  any  reference  to 
repentance  or  amendment,  for  a certain  sum  of  money,  the  pay- 
ment of  which,  he  assured  the  people,  would  save  them.  “At 
the  very  instant,”  shouted  the  Dominican  from  his  pulpit,  “that 
the  money  rattles  at  the  bottom  of  the  chest,  the  soul  escapes 
from  purgatory,  and  flies  to  heaven.”  It  is  even  said  that  he 
carried  with  him  two  chests,  one  containing  the  indulgences, 


1505-1520.] 


MARTIN  LUTHER. 


177 


which  were  dispensed  to  those  who  dropped  their  money  into 
the  other,  and  that  the  latter  bore  the  inscription  in  rhyme 
which  has  just  been  cited  in  prose. 

The  abuse  was  shocking,  and  the  notorious  and  scandalous 
misconduct  of  the  venders  of  indulgences  roused  the  public 
indignation,  to  which  Luther  gave  expression  by  affixing  to  the 
church  door  at  Wittenberg  95  theses,  or  propositions,  oct.  31, 
directed  against  indulgences,  which  he  declared  himself  1517 
ready  to  defend  against  all  opponents.  Such  opponents  appeared, 
and  Luther  answered  them.  Rejoinder  followed  rejoinder,  and 
the  dispute  spread  so  rapidly  that  the  pope  interposed  his  au- 
thority, and  summoned  Luther  to  Rome.  The  latter  preferred 
to  have  the  matter  decided  in  Germany,  and  through  the 
intervention  of  the  elector  Frederic,  it  was  referred  to  august, 
cardinal  Cajetan,  the  pope’s  legate  at  Augsburg.  1518 

The  legate  was  imperious,  cut  short  all  argument,  and  required 
Luther  to  retract.  He  refused ; and  the  cardinal,  at  the  close 
of  three  interviews,  said,  u Retract,  or  return  no  more ! ” 
Luther  left  Augsburg,  and  the  cardinal  wrote  to  the  elector 
either  to  send  him  to  Rome  for  trial,  or  to  banish  him  out  of 
his  country.  The  prince  saw  fit  not  to  comply  with  the  demand, 
and  the  dispute  for  a time  was  the  subject  of 
sundry  conferences,  which,  instead  of  composing 
it,  widened  the  differences  between  the  opposing  parties. 

One  of  the  Catholic  divines,  Dr.  Eck,  of  Ingolstadt,  after  the 
last  conference,  went  to  report  the  matter  at  Rome,  and  re- 
turned, armed  with  a papal  bull,  denouncing  certain  passages  in 
the  writings  of  Luther  as  heretical,  and  requiring  him,  on  pain 
of  excommunication,  to  retract  them  within  60  days. 

The  excitement  caused  by  the  publication  of  the  bull  was  in- 
tense. In  some  places  the  writings  of  Luther  were 
burnt ; in  others,  the  angry  populace  tore  the  bull  to 
pieces,  and  the  authorities  forbade  its  publication.  Dr.  Eck 
was  hooted  at  Leipzig,  and  had  to  flee  for  his  life.  Luther,  in- 
stead of  retracting,  maintained  the  struggle  with  increasing 


[1518-1519 


[l  520 


178 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[AD. 


vehemence,  and  brought  on  an  irrevocable  rupture  with  Rome, 
first,  by  an  appeal  from  the  pope’s  decision  to  a General  Coun- 
cil, and  secondly,  by  inviting  the  university  of  Wittenberg  to 
dec.  io,  see  the  bull,  and  other  papal  writings,  burnt  before 
1520  the  Elster-gate.  At  the  set  time,  he  first  threw  the 
Decretals  into  the  flames,  and  flung  after  them  the  bull,  say- 
ing, 44Since  thou  hast  vexed  the  Holy  One  of  the  Lord,  may 
everlasting  fire  vex  and  consume  thee”  (Josh.  7,  25). 

The  movement  led  by  Luther  was  very  popular  throughout 
Germany,  and  his  heroic  courage  the  absorbing  theme  of  con- 
versation. Encouraged  by  the  popular  voice,  and  the  support 
of  powerful  princes,  Luther,  furnished  with  an  imperial  safe- 
conduct,  went  to  appear  before  the  Diet  of  Worms,  and  before 
Apr.  17-19,  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  his  brother,  the  archduke 

1521  Ferdinand,  a numerous  assemblage  of  princes  and 
nobles,  of  the  papal  nuncios,  and  the  ambassadors  of  foreign 
potentates,  of  the  hierarchy  of  the  empire,  in  all  204  persons, 
representing  the  power  of  the  world,  in  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion, 44  Will  you,  or  will  you  not,  retract?”  made  this  memora- 
ble confession:  44  Unless  I am  convinced  by  the  testimony  of 
Scripture,  or  by  the  clearest  reasoning,  I cannot  and  I will  not 
retract,  for  it  is  unsafe  for  a Christian  to  speak  against  his  con- 
science.” And  then  looking  round  on  the  mighty  assembly  be- 
fore which  he  stood,  and  which  held  his  life  in  its  hands,  he 
said,  44  Here  I stand ; I cannot  do  otherwise;  may  God  help 
me  ! Amen  ! ” 

The  Diet  was  thunderstruck ; many  of  the  princes  found  it 
difficult  to  conceal  their  admiration,  and  the  empeVor  remarked, 
44  This  monk  speaks  with  an  intrepid  heart  and  unshaken  cour- 
age.” 

44  If  you  do  not  retract,”  said  the  chancellor,  44  the  emperor 
and  the  states  of  the  empire  will  consult  what  course  to  adopt 
against  an  incorrigible  heretic.” 

All  efforts  to  make  him  change  his  mind  proved  useless  ; he 
was  furnished  with  an  imperial  letter  of  safe-conduct,  and  bid- 


1520-1525.] 


MARTIN  LUTHER . 


179 


den  to  return  home  within  the  space  of  21  days.  He  left 
Worms,  but  a few  days  after  his  departure  an  imperial  April  26. 
edict  was  issued,  describing  Luther  as  a madman  and  May  8- 
a demoniac,  and  requiring  all  men  to  seize  and  deliver  to  the 
emperor  Luther  and  his  adherents,  and  to  destroy  his  writings 
by  fire,  or  otherwise. 

Meanwhile  the  elector  of  Saxony  had  provided  for  his  safety. 
In  the  Tliuringian  forest  his  carriage  was  surprised  by  five 
armed  and  masked  horsemen,  whom  his  companions  and  atten- 
dants mistook  for  enemies,  but  who  were  friends  in  disguise  ; 
for  the  elector  had  devised  this  ruse  as  the  only  means  of  saving 
him  from  certain  death.  The  friends  of  Luther  believed  him  in 
the  hands  of  his  enemies,  but  he  had  found  a safe  asylum  in  the 
fortified  castle  of  the  Wartburg,  near  Eisenach,  to  which  the 
masked  men  took  him.  They  made  him  exchange  his  monk's 
costume  for  military  garments,  enjoining  him  to  let  his  beard 
and  hair  grow,  and  passed  him  off  as  Knight  George.  In  the 
solitude  of  that  lofty,  ancient  castle  he  spent  ten  months,  and 
employed  himself  with  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
the  vernacular,  and  the  composition  of  theological  treatises. 

News  of  an  alarming  character  was  brought  to  him.  Carlstadt, 
a zealous  but  indiscreet  friend  of  the  Reformation,  had  occa- 
sioned a state  of  lamentable  disorder  at  Wittenberg,  where  the 
abolition  of  the  Mass  had  been  followed  by  the  wanton  destruc- 
tion of  altars,  and  the  burning  of  pictures,  images,  and  confes- 
sionals. Luther  returned  to  the  scene  of  his  former  labors, 
and  speedily  restored  order  by  wise  and  temperate  march  3, 
counsels.  1522 

The  marriage  of  Luther  with  Katharina  de  Bora,  one  of  nine 
nuns,  who,  under  the  influence  of  his  teaching,  had 
emancipated  themselves  from  their  religious  vows, 
gave  great  offence  to  the  Catholics,  but  doubtless  made  him 
more  happy. 

The  movement  of  the  Reformation,  which  spread  apace,  occa- 
sioned numerous  changes  in  the  government  and  service  of  the 


[l  525 


180 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


Church,  of  which  the  most  important  were,  the  abolition  of  the 
Mass,  and  the  administration  of  the  Lord’s  Supper  in  such  wise 
that  communicants  partook  of  the  wine  and  the  bread.  The 
images  of  saints  were  removed  from  the  churches,  the  worship 
was  conducted  in  the  German  language,  the  clergy  were  per- 
mitted to  marry,  and  the  vows  of  monks  and  nuns  were  declared 
to  have  no  binding  force.  The  doctrines  of  the  Reformation 
were  adopted  in  Saxony,  Hesse,  parts  of  Prussia,  and  in  the 
cities  of  Magdeburg,  Nuremberg,  Hamburg,  Strassburg,  Frank- 
fort, etc. 

For  the  better  instruction  of  the  people  the  Larger  and  the 
Lesser  Catechisms  were  set  forth  in  the  same  year  in  which  the 
->  Catholics  at  the  Diet  of  Spires  carried  the  resolution 
that  where  the  edict  of  Worms  could  not  be  executed 
without  fear  of  revolution,  no  further  reform  should  be  allowed. 
This  resolution  was  unacceptable  to  the  Reformers,  who  pro- 
tested against  it,  and  thus  arose  the  name  of  Protestants. 

Another  Diet  was  held  in  the  following  year  at  Augsburg,  at 
\ 53ol  which  Melanchthon  presented  the  confession  of  faith, 
which  is  known  as  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and 
marks  the  triumph  of  the  Reformation.  The  Diet  lasted  five 
months,  and  ended  in  the  promulgation  of  a severe  decree, 
abolishing  all  the  changes  introduced,  and  commanding  the 
Reformers,  until  the  meeting  of  a General  Council,  to  restore 
everything  to  ancient  custom  and  usage,  on  pain  of  incurring 
the  indignation  and  vengeance  of  the  emperor.  The  decree 
remained  a dead  letter,  but  led  to  a powerful  league  or  alliance, 
1 531  ] known  as  the  League  of  Smalcald,  in  which  nine  princes 
and  eleven  imperial  cities  solemnly  bound  themselves 
to  defend  their  religious  liberty  against  the  dangers  with  which 
they  were  threatened  by  the  decree  of  Augsburg. 

The  invasion  of  Germany  by  the  Turks,  who  had  advanced  as 
far  as  Vienna,  was  favorable  to  the  Reformation,  for  the  emperor 
stood  in  need  of  succors  against  that  enemy,  which  the  Protestant 
princes  refused  as  long  as  the  edicts  of  Worms  and  Augsburg 


1529-1546.] 


MARTIN  LUTHER . 


181 


remained  in  force,  and  was  compelled  to  agree  to  the  treaty  of 
peace,  concluded  at  Nuremberg,  in  which  the  Protestant  532 
princes  promised  to  furnish  a subsidy  towards  the 
conduct  of  the  Turkish  war  and  to  acknowledge  Ferdinand 
lawful  king  of  the  Romans,  while  the  emperor  engaged  to  annul 
the  obnoxious  edicts,  and  to  allow  the  Lutherans  the  free  and 
unmolested  exercise  of  their  religion  until  the  whole  matter 


[i545 


should  be  settled  by  a General  Council,  or  a Diet  of  the 
empire. 

The  wars  against  the  Turks  and  the  French  lasted  about 
twelve  years,  during  which  the  Reformation  gathered  much 
strength.  The  Protestants  neither  attended  the  General  Coun- 
cil at  Trent  in  the  Tyrol,  which  was  convened  after  the 
peace  had  been  restored,  nor  the  Diet  at  Ratisbon, 
which  took  place  in  the  following  year,  and  aware  that  the 
emperor  and  the  pope  were  thinking  of  war,  prepared  to  defend 
their  creed  with  the  sword. 

But  Luther  did  not  live  to  see  that  terrible  blow  struck.  Re- 
duced in  strength,  he  had  gone  on  a mission  of  reconciliation  to 
Eisleben,  and  caught  a violent  cold.  He  took  to  bed  Feb.  is, 
and  ended  his  life  in  the  place  where  he  was  born,  in  1546 
the  sixty- third  year  of  his  life.  His  remains  were  removed  to 
Wittenberg,  and  interred  in  the  castle  church,  where  a brass 
tablet  indicates  his  resting-place. 

The  Reformation,  as  a religious  movement,  has  been,  and 
always  will  be,  judged  according  to  the  religious  convictions  and 
sympathies  of  men.  The  descendants  of  the  Reformers,  and  all 
who  value  Protestantism  as  a step  in  the  direction  of  liberty, 
will  ever  cherish  the  work,  and  honor  the  memory  of  Luther,  as 
that  of  an  intrepid  champion  of  the  faith,  and  an  apostle  of 
liberty. 

It  is  impossible  to  disprove  that  Luther  was  a grand  and 
noble  character,  and  probably  the  most  popular  man  that  ever 
lived  in  Germany.  His  diligence  was  wonderful,  and  in  one 
field  at  least  his  greatness  is  undisputed,  that  of  the  language  of 


182 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


his  country,  which  he  purified  from  the  jargon  dialect,  and 
raised  to  a remarkable  degree  of  perfection.  He  wrote  a large 
number  of  books,  but  his  crowning  merit  is  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  from  the  original  tongues  into  German,  which  he  be- 
gan in  the  solitude  of  the  Wartburg,  and  completed  in  1534.  It 
is  destined  to  live  as  long  as  the  German  nation,  and  to  transmit 
the  name  and  greatness  of  Martin  Luther  to  distant  generations. 

REFERENCES. 

Mosheim,  “ Ecclesiastical  History  ” ; D’Aubigne,  “ History  of  the 
Reformation  ” ; Bunsen,  “ Martin  Luther.” 


1547-1603.] 


ELIZABETH. 


183 


ELIZABETH.  [1558-1603 

Henry  VIII.  the  father  of  Elizabeth,  had  six  wives.  Cath- 
arine of  Arragon,  the  mother  of  Mary,  he  divorced ; Anne 
Boleyn,  the  mother  of  Elizabeth,  he  had  beheaded  ; Jane  Sey- 
mour, the  mother  of  Edward,  died  in  her  bed  ; Anne  of  Cleves, 
his  fourth  wife,  he  divorced ; Catharine  Howard,  his  fifth  wife, 
shared  the  fate  of  Anne  Boleyn  ; and  Catharine  Parr,  his  sixth 
wife,  survived  him. 

Henrv  VIII.  was  succeeded  by  Edward  VI.,  r 

J J I 1547— 1553 

who  reigned  six  years ; then  Mary  ascended  the 

throne,  reigned  about  five  years  and  a half  ; and  [l  553-1 558 

was  succeeded  by  Elizabeth,  who  w^as  25  years  old  at  the  time 

of  her  accession. 

Her  youth  was  not  happy,  and  during  the  reign  of  her 
half-sister  Mary  her  lot  far  from  enviable ; when  she  heard  a 
milkmaid  sing  under  the  trees  of  Woodstock  Park,  she  would 
fain  have  changed  places  with  her.  But  she  employed  her  time 
well,  and  became  very  accomplished  in  Letters.  She  knew 
Greek  and  Latin,  and  spoke  French,  Italian,  and  German  ; she 
was  well  read  and  fond  of  music,  a daring  rider,  a good  shot, 
and  a fine  dancer. 

The  youthful  queen  was  tall,  but  not  handsome,  her  bearing 
was  full  of  dignity  and  strength,  and  her  manners  pleasing  and 
popular.  Her  sagacity  and  judgment  became  known  on  the 
first  day  of  her  reign  by  her  choice  of  sir  William  Cecil,  after- 
wards lord  Burleigh,  as  her  chief  adviser. 

The  announcement  in  Parliament  of  the  death  of  queen  Mary, 
was  answered  by  the  unanimous  proclamation,  u God  save 
queen  Elizabeth,  and  long  and  happy  may  she  reign  !”  When 


184 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


the  news  became  known  in  London,  the  bells  of  the  churches 
were  set  ringing,  tables  were  placed  in  the  streets,  “ where  was 
plentiful  eating,  drinking,  and  making  merry,”  for  the  new 
queen  ; and  at  night  bonfires  were  lit,  and  the  sky  was  reddened 
by  flames,  which  had  not  been  fed  by  human  beings  in  Smith- 
field. 

Elizabeth,  who  was  at  Hatfield  at  the  time,  received  the 
news  of  her  accession  with  an  outburst  of  grateful  devotion. 
She  fell  upon  her  knees,  and  exclaimed  in  Latin,  “It  is  the 
Lord’s  doing,  and  it  is  marvellous  in  our  eyes.” 

On  the  day  before  her  coronation  she  made  a grand  progress 
through  the  city  of  London,  and  was  greeted  everywhere  “by 
the  prayers,  the  shouts,  the  tender  words,  and  uplifted  hands  of 
the  people.” 

Soon  after  her  accession,  king  Philip  II.  of  Spain  made  her 
an  offer  of  his  hand,  but  she  refused  the  honor,  and  told  Parlia- 
ment, at  the  close  of  a long  speech  on  the  subject  of  her  mar- 
riage, “ And  for  me  it  shall  be  sufficient  that  a marble  stone 
declare  that  a queen,  having  reigned  such  a time,  lived  and 
died  a virgin.”  This  declaration  she  often  repeated,  and  kept, 
for  she  never  married. 

Her  earliest  measures  were  directed  to  the  regulation  of 
church  affairs.  England  became  a Protestant  country,  in  which 
the  authority  of  the  pope  was  renounced,  and  the  queen  was  the 
supreme  governor  in  Church  and  State.  The  Mass  was  abol- 
islied,  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  restored,  and,  after 
a few  years,  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  became  the  stan- 
dard of  belief  in  the  Church  of  England. 

The  execution  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  has  left  an  indelible 
stain  on  the  character  of  Elizabeth,  for  it  is  impossible  to  ab- 
solve her  from  the  jealousy  and  fear,  which  actuated  her  from 
the  moment  that  the  fugitive  queen  set  her  foot  on  English  soil 
Feb.  8,  until,  after  the  mockery  of  a trial,  she  had  laid  her 
1587  head  on  the  block  at  Fotheringay.  Although  after 
the  death  of  Mary  she  tried  to  make  the  world  believe  that  the 


1563-1530.] 


ELIZABETH . 


185 


tragedy  was  enacted  without  her  knowledge  and  against  her  will, 
the  verdict  of  history  makes  her  the  prime  mover  in  the  transac- 
tion, and  convicts  her,  moreover,  of  almost  unparalleled  duplicity. 

There  is  no  doubt  whatever,  that  even  after  the  death-war- 
rant had  been  signed,  she  sought  means  to  have  her  assassinated 
in  private,  and  when  these  failed,  said  that  the  sentence  should 
be  carried  into  effect. 

But  in  spite  of  many  and  serious  blemishes,  she  was  a popu- 
lar and  excellent  ruler.  In  her  reign,  the  material,  and  espe- 
cially the  commercial,  interests  of  the  nation  were  singularly 
prosperous. 

The  troubles  in  France  and  the  discovery  of  America  had 
given  rise  to  a spirit  of  bold  adventure.  English  privateers,  or, 
as  they  were  called,  “ sea  dogs,”  pursued  a dangerous  but 
lucrative  trade.  Chief  among  them  stands  the  name  of  Francis 
Drake,  who  conceived  and  executed  the  daring  design  of  carry- 
ing # the  English  flag  into  the  Pacific.  With  a small  dec.  13, 
vessel  and  80  men  he  passed  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  1577 
spread  terror  along  the  coasts  of  Chili  and  Peru,  loaded  his  bark 
with  the  gold-dust  and  silver  ingots  of  Potosi,  and  with  the 
pearls  and  precious  stones  which  formed  the  cargo  of  a Spanish 
vessel;  then,  sailing  across  the  Pacific,  he  doubled  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,,  and  completed  the  circumnavigation  of  gEPT.  26, 
the  globe.  1580 

His  return  was  hailed  with  unbounded  enthusiasm  in  Eng- 
land ; Elizabeth  herself  was  present  at  a banquet  on  board  his 
ship  and  conferred  upon  him  the  honor  of  knighthood. 

Philip  of  Spain,  who  felt  incensed  against  Elizabeth  not  only 
because  of  the  depredations  on  the  commerce  and  possessions 
of  Spain,  made  by  Drake,  Cavendish,  and  others,  but  because 
of  the  sympathy  and  aid  accorded  by  the  queen  and  her  sub- 
jects to  William  of  Orange,  and  last,  not  least,  because  of  the 
execution  of  Mary  Stuart,  intended  to  strike  a decisive  blow, 
and  annihilate  the  growing  and  hateful  power  of  England. 

Elizabeth  was  well  informed  of  his  immense  preparations,  and 


186 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


resolved,  while  diplomatic  negotiations  were  still  going  on,  to 
l ^ 87]  aver^  impending  storm,  by  striking  the  first  blow  ; 

she  dispatched  Drake  with  a fleet  of  30  sail,  and  or- 
dered him  to  destroy  all  Spanish  ships  he  could  find  in  the 
harbors  of  Spain.  He  dashed  into  Cadiz  roads,  burnt,  sunk, 
or  took  30  Spanish  vessels,  some  of  the  largest  size.  Then, 
between  Cadiz  and  Cape  St.  Vincent,  he  burnt,  sunk,  or  took 
100  vessels,  and  demolished  four  castles  on  the  coast,  and  thus, 
as  he  humorously  expressed  it,  completed  his  u singeing  of  the 
Spanish  king’s  beard.” 

The  preparations,  though  checked,  continued  with  increasing 
1588]  v^&or*  Early  in  the  following  year  they  were  com- 
pleted. The  armament,  which  from  the  vain  pre- 
sumption that  it  could  not  be  resisted,  had  received  the  name 
of  the  Invincible  Armada,  consisted  of  130  vessels  of  war, 
carrying  2,431  pieces  of  artillery,  and  4,575  quintals  of  powder  ; 
there  were  on  board  30,000  men,  while  an  army  of  34,000,  under 
the  prince  of  Parma,  stood  ready  at  Dunkirk,  awaiting  the 
arrival  of  the  Armada  to  protect  its  passage  to  England. 

To  meet  this  formidable  expedition,  Elizabeth  had  collected 
a fleet  of  191  vessels,  manned  with  17,400  sailors.  The  vessels 
were  of  smaller  size  than  those  of  Philip,  but  under  more  skilful 
nautical  direction.  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham  commanded  the 
fleet,  and  among  his  subordinates  were  Drake,  Hawkins,  and 
Frobisher.  A military  force  of  upwards  of  63,000  men,  with 
36  pieces  of  ordnance,  had  been  placed  at  Tilbury  Fort,  and 
around  London. 

The  Armada  had  been  ordered  to  sail  early  in  May,  but  was 
delayed  by  the  death  of  two  admirals.  Philip  then  put  in  com- 
mand the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  a man  of  high  rank,  but 
utterly  deficient  in  seamanship,  and  appointed  Martinez  de 
Recaldo,  an  expert  seaman,  vice-admiral. 

The  armament  set  sail  from  the  Tagus  on  its  way 
to  Coruna,  where  more  troops  were  to  be  taken  on 
board,  and  was  overtaken  by  a severe  storm  off  Cape  Finis terre, 


1587-1588] 


ELIZABETH. 


187 


in  which  four  large  ships  foundered,  and  much  damage  was 
done  to  the  rest.  After  some  necessary  delay  the  fleet  resumed 
its  course,  and  at  last  was  descried,  sailing  slowly  July20 
down  the  Channel,  in  the  form  of  a half-moon,  for  the 
coast  of  Flanders. 

Howard  let  them  pass,  and  followed  them  ; in  a first  brush 
with  the  enemy’s  rear,  one  of  the  largest  Spanish  men-of-war 
was  crippled,  and  a treasure  ship  was  taken  by  Drake.  On  its 
slow  progress  to  Calais,  where  it  came  to  anchor,  the 

July  27« 

armament  suffered  considerable  loss.  Medina  Sido- 
nia  opened  communication  by  land  with  the  duke  of  Parma, 
but  Dunkirk  being  closely  blockaded  by  the  English  and  the 
Dutch,  the  latter  was  unable  to  move  his  army.  Howard  threw 
the  Armada  into  confusion  and  dismay  by  sending  eight  small 
fire-ships  among  them  in  the  middle  of  the  night.  They  had 
been  gutted,  covered  with  pitch,  rosin,  and  wild-fire,  and 
filled  with  combustibles,  and  quietly  taken  close  to  the  Spanish 
line  ; then  the  men  in  charge  of  them  took  to  their  boats,  fired 
the  trains,  and  escaped.  The  explosion  did  not  sink  any  ships, 
but  scattered  the  armament.  In  the  morning  a general  engage- 
ment was  brought  on,  and  the  battle  raged  throughout  the  day. 
The  English  were  entirely  victorious,  and  so  crippled  the  Span- 
ish that  Medina  Sidonia  abandoned  the  whole  enterprise ; 
and,  in  order  to  save  the  remainder  of  his  fleet  from  destruc- 
tion, ordered  the  armament  to  sail  round  Scotland.  The  Eng- 
lish, from  want  of  ammunition,  could  not  follow  them,  but  the 
fierce  storms  which  broke  on  them  in  the  northern  seas,  accom- 
plished their  overthrow.  Only  50  sail,  and  10,000  men,  stricken 
with  pestilence  and  death,  reached  Coruna  ; of  the  rest,  gE  te 
some  foundered  at  sea,  others  dashed  to  pieces  against 
the  cliffs  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  others  were  driven  as  far 
as  the  rocks  of  Norway.  The  voice  of  joy  and  thanksgiving 
rang  throughout  England,  but  that  of  universal  lamentation  was 
heard  in  Spain.  Philip  alone  remained  calm,  and  said,  UI 
have  sent  my  fleet  against  men,  not  against  storms  and  cliffs.” 


188 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


1596] 


Several  years  after  the  destruction  of  the  Armada,  the  Eng- 
lish inflicted  another  hard  blow  on  Spain  in  the  expedition  com- 
manded by  the  earl  of  Essex,  sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  others. 

The  fleet  sailed  into  the  port  of  Cadiz,  destroyed  or 
captured  the  shipping,  and  on  the  next  day  Essex 
forced  the  city  to  capitulate.  The  lives  of  the  inhabitants,  under 
express  orders  of  the  queen,  were  spared  on  payment  of  a heavy 
ransom  ; but  they  lost  everything  they  had,  the  city  was  plundered, 
set  on  fire,  and  the  fortifications  were  razed  to  the  ground. 

This  was  one  of  many  daring  exploits  achieved  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  on  the  sea,  not  only  with  hostile  intent,  but 
in  the  more  beneficent  service  of  discovery  and  commerce. 
Martin  Frobisher  explored  the  northern  seas,  and  entered  the 
strait  which  leads  into  Hudson’s  Bay,  and  still  bears  his  name. 

-i  He  landed  on  some  of  the  adiacent  coasts,  and 

1567 1578  J 1 

took  them  in  possession  for  England.  The  first 

circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  made  by  an  Englishman,  was 

accomplished,  as  told  in  a former  paragraph,  by  Francis  Drake. 

The  search  of  the  northwest  passage,  after  Frobisher  had  led 


1585-1587] 


the  way,  was  made  in  three  voyages  of  discovery 


by  John  Davis,  on  the  first  of  which  he  found  the 
strait  to  which  he  left  his  name. 

Thomas  Cavendish  also  circumnavigated  the  globe,  and  on  a 
I59l]  seco]Qd  voyage,  shared  by  John  Davis,  discovered  the 
Falkland  Islands  in  the  South  Sea. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  his  step-brother,  Sir  Humphrey  Gil- 


1576-1583] 


bert,  made  two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  reach, 


with  a view  to  colonial  settlement,  the  North 
American  continent ; the  latter,  after  having  reached  New- 
foundland, perished  with  his  ship  at  sea  on  the  return  voyage. 
Sir  Walter  in  the  next  year  sent  out  two  ships  on  a more 
southerly  course,  and  that  voyage  resulted  in  the  discovery  of 
a section  of  the  coast,  which,  in  honor  of  the  queen,  was 
called  Virginia,  and  embraced  not  only  Virginia  proper,  but 
Carolina.  It  was,  of  course,  a vague  term,  for  even  some 


1567-1600.] 


ELIZABETH. 


189 


[l  585 


time  later  Virginia  was  defined  as  u that  country  of  the  earth 
which  the  ancients  called  Morosa,  between  Florida  and  New 
France.”  The  first  colony  planted,  but  unsuccessfully,  was 
that  on  Roanoke  Island,  by  Sir  Richard  Grenville. 

Drake,  on  his  way  from  the  Spanish  possessions,  dis- 
covered the  settlement,  and  took  the  colonists  back  to  England. 
Soon  after  they  had  left,  Grenville  arrived,  and  left  r 
fifteen  men  in  the  place,  with  provisions  for  two  years. 

Raleigh  in  the  next  year  sent  out  three  more  vessels,  but  the 
fifteen  men  had  been  killed  by  the  Indians.  John  White,  the 
governor  sent  out  by  Raleigh,  attempted  to  lay  out  the  city  of 
Raleigh,  and  returned  to  England.  The  fate  of  these  colonists 
is  unknown. 

It  is  said  that  the  men  from  Raleigh’s  colony,  whom  Drake 
took  back,  were  the  first  who  introduced  tobacco  into  England. 
Sir  Walter  liked  to  smoke,  and  the  sfcuy  runs  that  some  one 
who  saw  him  smoking  fancied  he  was  on  fire,  and  threw  a 
tankard  of  ale  over  him  to  put  it  out.  He  is  also  credited  with 
having  introduced  the  potato  into  England. 

Commercial  intercourse  with  India  was  opened  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  and  led  to  the  formation  of  the  famous 
East  India  Company.  The  detestable  African  slave 
trade,  also,  is  believed  to  have  begun  in  that  reign  by  John 
Hawkins,  who,  in  commemoration  of  his  priority  in 
that  infamous  business,  was  allowed  to  add  to  his 
coat-of-arms  u a demi-moor  proper,  bound  with  a cord.” 

The  sudden  death  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  so  long  the 
favorite  of  Elizabeth,  does  not  seem  to  have  caused  her  much 
sorrow.  His  place  was  filled  by  his  step-son,  the  earl  of 
Essex.  He  was  a man  of  fine  presence,  and  many  good  quali- 
ties, popular,  as  well  as  the  queen’s  favorite.  He  was  apt  to 
be  haughty,  and  on  one  occasion  forgot  himself,  and  hurt 
the  queen’s  vanity  to  the  quick  by  his  rude  conduct.  The  min- 
isters were  discussing  the  appointment  of  a new  lord-deputy 
for  Ireland.  The  Cecils  proposed  one  officer,  and  Essex  an- 


[l  600 


[l  562 


190 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


other ; Elizabeth  siding  with  the  former,  and,  as  was  her  wont, 
giving  Essex  a piece  of  her  mind,  he  rose  in  anger  and  turned 
his  back  upon  her.  The  queen  then  did  a very  unqueenly  and 
unladylike  thing.  She  boxed  his  ear,  and  swore  at  him. 

Essex  laid  his  hand  on  his  sword,  and  swore  that,  as  he 
would  not  have  taken  such  an  affront  from  Henry  VIII.,  so  he 
would  not  take  it  from  a king  in  petticoats.  He  then  rushed 
out  of  the  room,  and  stayed  away  from  court  for  several 
months.  But  a reconciliation  took  place,  and  Essex  was  sent 

n as  lord-lieutenant  to  Ireland.  His  mission  proved  a 

1 599  I 1 

failure,  and  he  returned,  against  the  wishes  of  Eliza- 
beth, to  London,  forced  his  way  to  her  room,  and  apparently 
secured  her  favor,  for  in  token  thereof  she  gave  him  her  hand 
to  kiss  ; but  in  the  course  of  the  same  day  she  ordered  him  to 
consider  himself  a prisoner  in  his  own  room,  and  three  days 
later  had  him  arrested.  His  restraint  lasted  nearly  a year,  and 
Aug.  26,  upon  his  release  from  custody  he  was  forbidden 

1600  the  court.  Deprived  of  his  honors  and  offices, 
and  reduced  in  his  affairs,  he  applied  to  Elizabeth  for  the 
renewal  of  his  monopoly  in  sweet  wines,  but  she  refused,  on 
the  offensive  ground  that,  u in  order  to  manage  an  unruly 
beast,  he  must  be  stinted  in  his  food.” 

This  exasperated  Essex,  who  now  passed  from  one  indiscre- 
tion to  another,  called  the  queen  a vain  old  woman,  who  had  grown 
as  crooked  in  her  mind  as  she  had  in  her  figure,  and  finally 
Feb.  25,  tried  to  excite  an  insurrection  in  London.  He  was 

1601  arrested,  tried,  found  guilt}7,  and  beheaded. 

After  the  death  of  Essex  the  queen  became  gloomy,  and  her 
powers  began  to  fail ; towards  the  last  she  fell  into  a stupor 
and  refused  to  take  medicine  and  go  to  bed.  For  ten  days  she 
lay  on  cushions  on  the  floor,  and  it  was  necessary  to  use  force 
to  get  her  to  bed.  In  answer  to  the  question  of  her  ministers 
as  to  her  successor,  she  said  that  she  would  have  no  rascal  to 
succeed  her.  Cecil  asked  her  what  she  meant  by  “ no  rascal,” 
and  she  said,  that  a king  should  succeed  her,  and  whom  should 


1599-1603.] 


ELIZABETH . 


191 


she  mean  but  her  cousin  of  Scotland.  The  next  morn-  march  24, 
ing  she  died.  Seven  hours  afterwards  James  VI.  of  1603 
Scotland  was  proclaimed  in  London  as  James  I.,  king  of 
England. 

Elizabeth  died  at  Richmond  in  the  70th  year  of  her  age,  and 
the  45th  of  her  reign,  and  her  remains  were  interred  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  A noble  monument  erected  by  James  I.  marks 
the  spot. 

Perhaps  the  most  lasting  lustre  shed  on  her  reign  is  that 
derived  from  the  names  of  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  and  Bacon. 

Elizabeth  was  very  popular,  but  both  her  virtues  and  her 
faults  have  been  exaggerated.  Had  she  been  a man,  she  might 
in  man}’  things  have  been  a second  Henry  VIII.,  but  as  a 
woman  she  was  altogether  too  masculine.  Her  appearance,  as 
noticed  by  one  who  saw  her  four  years  before  her  death  on  a 
state  occasion  at  Greenwich,  was  “majestic:  her  face  oblong, 
fair  but  wrinkled ; her  eyes  small,  yet  black  and  pleasant ; her 
nose  a little  hooked,  her  lips  narrow,  and  her  teeth  black  [a 
defect  the  English  seem  subject  to,  from  their  too  great  use  of 
sugar]  ; she  had  in  her  ears  two  very  rich  pearls,  with  drops  ; 
she  wore  false  hair,  and  that  red ; upon  her  head  she  had  a 
small  crown  . . . her  hands  were  small,  her  fingers  long,  and 
her  stature  neither  tall  nor  low  ; her  air  was  stately,  and  her 
manner  of  speaking  mild  and  obliging.” 

Elizabeth  wrote,  and  doubtless  pronounced,  deserve,  desarve , 
swerve,  sivarve , keep,  kipe , and  it  hit. 

The  ladies  of  her  court  imitated  her  in  most  things,  and  either 
dyed  their  own  hair  red,  or  wore  red  wigs. 

REFERENCES. 

The  several  Histories  of  England,  especially  Knight,  “Pictorial 
History  of  England  ” ; Green,  “ Short  History  of  the  English  People,” 
and  Robertson,  “History  of  Scotland. ” Also  Milner,  “History  of 
England.” 


192 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


1682-1725]  PETER  THE  GREAT. 


Towards  the  close  of  the  17th  century  the  vast  Russian 
Empire  in  the  estimate  of  civilized  Europe  was  thought  to  be 
a gigantic  wilderness  of  impassable  mountains  and  morasses, 
one-half  of  which  was  clouded  in  perpetual  darkness  or  frozen 
up,  and  the  other  covered  with  impenetrable  forests.  Rough 
as  its  climate,  and  uncultivated  as  its  soil,  were  the  character 
and  habits  of  the  ferocious  tribes  of  Slavonic  or  Scandinavian 
origin  which  constituted  its  population.  That  estimate,  though 
exaggerated  by  ignorance  or  terror,  did  not  fall  short  of  truth 
with  regard  to  the  people,  who  for  the  most  part  were  in  a state 
of  abject  and  savage  ignorance,  held  in  base  and  impotent 
vassalage  or  slavey  by  the  barbarian  despots,  or  autocrats, 
whom  they  called  czars. 

Russia,  at  the  time  of  Peter’s  accession,  was  practically  an 
uncivilized  country,  and  that  monarch  may  justly  be  called  the 
father  of  Russian  civilization. 

Peter  was  the  son  of  the  czar  Alexis  Mikailovitch  by  his 
second  wife  Natalia  Naryskkie,  and  born  at  Moscow, 
June  9,  1672.  His  father  died  when  he  was  only  four 
years  old,  and  was  succeeded  by  Feodor,  his  half-brother,  who 
died  without  issue,  and  appointed  Peter  his  successor, 
instead  of  Tvan,  his  full  brother.  Peter,  at  the  time, 
was  ten  years  old,  and  his  mother  was  to  rule  during  the  period 
of  his  minority.  This  arrangement  was  unsatisfactory  to  the 
children  of  Alexis  by  his  first  wife,  among  whom  the  grand 
duchess  Sophia,  an  able,  domineering,  and  ambitious  woman, 
was  most  disaffected.  She  instigated  an  insurrection  of  the 
Strelitz,  the  petted  and  formidable  body-guard  of  the  Russian 


1672] 


1682] 


1672-1689.] 


PETER  THE  GREAT. 


193 


czars,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  coronation  of  Ivan  and 

Peter  as  joint  rulers,  and  her  own  appointment  as  r 

|_  1 682 

regent. 

Sophia  continued  at  the  head  of  the  government  five  years 
longer,  and  became  reconciled  to  the  existing  state  of  things 
from  her  belief  that  Peter,  who  lived  in  the  retirement  of 
Preobrashenskoe,  was  not  an  object  of  fear. 

But  in  that  she  was  much  mistaken,  for  the  young  czar  cher- 
ished great  projects  and  was  ambitious  of  making  his  mark. 
She  thought  he  was  playing  at  soldiery,  and  absorbed  in  study 
and  pastime,  while  he  was  quietly  preparing  for  action.  It 
was  his  good  fortune  to  make  the  acquaintance  and  secure 
the  friendship  of  Lefort,  an  accomplished  Genevese,  of  much 
culture  and  refinement,  who  constantly  discoursed  to  him  of 
the  vast  superiority  of  other  countries  to  Russia  in  the  sciences 
and  arts  of  civilization,  and  filled  his  pupil  with  the  enthusiastic 
desire  of  securing  them  to  his  own  country.  Lefort  undertook 
the  formation  of  a small  military  company,  composed  of  the 
youthful  companions  of  Peter,  in  which  Peter  passed,  by  strict 
discipline  and  merit,  from  the  lowest  grade  to  the  highest. 
Peter  called  the  company  his  poteshni , that  is,  his  comrades. 
Their  numbers  soon  increased,  and  their  military  training  was 
so  excellent,  that  Peter  felt  assured  of  their  efficient  service  in 
the  prosecution  of  his  plans.  He  was  resolved  to  oppose  the 
usurpation  of  Sophia,  and  asked  her  to  resign,  forbade  her 
appearance  on  a public  occasion  in  the  capacity  of  regent,  and 
upon  her  refusal,  left  the  church.  Sophia,  thoroughly  roused, 
and  daring  the  worst,  as  was  her  wont,  fell  to  intriguing.  The 
conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  in  the  revulsion  caused  by  its 
announcement,  most  of  the  military,  including  the  Strelitz, 
and  many  nobles,  flocked  around  Peter,  who  compelled  the  impe- 
rious and  plotting  Sophia  to  spend  the  remainder  of  her  life  in 
a convent. 

Peter  made  his  solemn  entry  into  Moscow,  when  he  was  met 
by  Ivan,  whom  he  gratified  by  the  nominal  possession  of  imperial 


194 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


Oct.  11, 

1689 


power,  and  became  on  that  day  sole  czar  of  Russia. 
Ivan  died  six  years  later. 

The  first  care  of  Peter  was  directed  to  the  formation  of  an 
army,  in  which  the  military  experience  of  the  veteran  general, 
Patrick  Gordon,  and  of  Lefort,  afforded  him  invaluable  aid. 
With  the  poteslini  as  a nucleus,  he  soon  had  an  effective  force 
of  20,000  men,  disciplined  according  to  European  tactics,  which 
was  constantly  growing  in  numbers  and  efficiency.  The  crea- 
tion of  a naval  force,  both  armed  and  mercantile,  also  seemed 
to  him  indispensable  to  the  development  of  the  country,  and  to 
the  conquest  he  was  planning. 

It  is  said  that  soon  after  his  accession  he  noticed  in  an  old 
storehouse  near  Moscow  a boat  of  a construction  different  from 
Russian  boats.  Extremely  observant  and  curious,  he  learned 
that  it  was  an  English  boat,  and  found  a Dutch  carpenter,  who 
put  it  in  thorough  repair.  Then  he  tried  it  himself,  and  its 
excellence  gave  him  so  much  pleasure  that  he  forthwith  ordered 
the  building  of  a number  of  boats  after  that  model,  both  of  the 
same  and  a larger  size.  He  also  visited  Archangel,  on 
the  White  Sea,  and  encouraged  the  building  of  ships 
there  so  successfully  that  on  his  next  visit  he  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  making  a maritime  excursion  with  several  Russian  built 
vessels.  Shut  out  from  the  sea,  except  in  high  latitudes,  by 
Sweden  and  Poland  at  one  extremity  of  his  vast  empire,  and  by 
Turkey  on  the  other,  Peter  felt  the  imperative  want  of  an  avail- 
able sea-board  and  ports,  and  cast  his  eyes  on  the  provinces  of 
his  more  favored  neighbors. 

When  a conqueror  sees  something  he  likes  and  thinks  he  can 
get,  he  soon  finds  a pretext  for  securing  it.  Thus  Peter 
coveted  Azof,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don  on  the  Black  Sea,  de- 
clared war  against  Turkey,  assailed  Azof  by  land  and  water,  and 
after  a long  siege  or  blockade,  took  it.  Flushed  with 
the  success  of  his  enterprise,  he  returned  to  Moscow, 
and  took  measures  for  the  preservation  of  his  new  conquest  by 
ordering  the  building  of  more  ships  of  war,  and  the  construction 


1693] 


1696] 


1689-1697.] 


PETER  THE  GREAT . 


195 


of  a canal  connecting  the  waters  of  the  Don  with  those  of  the 
Volga.  He  invited  skilled  engineers,  architects,  and  military 
men  from  abroad,  and  sent  many  young  Russians  to  foreign 
countries  for  study  and  observation,  especially  in  matters  con- 
nected with  ship-building,  naval  equipment,  and  military  art. 

The  numerous  reforms  introduced  by  the  restless  energy  of 
the  young  czar  were  not  relished  by  the  Strelitz,  who  formed  a 
new  conspiracy,  which  was  betrayed  to  Peter  by  two  of  their 
number,  who  came  to  tell  him,  a few  hours  before  the  feb. 
time  fixed  upon  for  the  outbreak,  that  the  Strelitz,  who  1697 
were  even  then  assembled  at  the  house  of  a prominent  noble, 
intended  to  set  the  city  on  fire  that  very  night,  and  assassinate 
him  in  the  throng  and  confusion  of  the  scene,  which  the}’  felt 
sure  he  would  visit.  This  alarming  intelligence  was  brought  to 
Peter  at  the  house  of  Lefort,  with  whom  he  was  dining.  He  had 
the  informers  arrested,  and  sent  a written  order  to  an  officer  to 
proceed  at  eleven  o’clock  to  the  designated  house,  to  surround 
it,  and  take  all  persons  found  in  it  prisoners.  Then  he  returned 
to  the  company,  left  about  ten,  and  drove,  accompanied  by  only 
one  officer,  to  the  house  where  the  conspirators  were  in  session  - 
Arriving  about  half  an  hour  later,  he  noticed  with  surprise  the 
absence  of  his  soldiers,  but  fearlessly  stepped  in  among  the 
Strelitz,  and  lulled  their  guilty  fears  by  exclaiming  he  had  come  to 
share  their  carousal.  They  drank  his  health,  and  about  eleven 
he  overheard  one  of  the  company  whisper  to  his  neighbor,  “Now 
is  the  time,”  and  the  other  reply  in  as  low  a voice,  u Not  yet.” 
Then  Peter  thundered  out,  u But  it  is  time  for  me,  villain!” 
and  struck  him  in  the  face.  At  that  instant  the  officer  and  his 
men  entered  the  room:  “ Bind  the  dogs  !”  shouted  the  czar; 
the  conspirators  fell  upon  their  knees,  and  implored  his  mercy. 
They  were  fettered,  and  the  czar  then  struck  the  officer  for 
having  come  too  late.  He  produced  the  written  order  in  proof 
of  his  strict  obedience,  and  Peter,  perceiving  that  he  had  made 
a mistake,  kissed  him  on  the  forehead,  and  declared  him  a good 
officer. 


196 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


Then  Peter  returned  to  the  house  of  Lefort,  and  reported 
what  he  had  done.  The  leaders  in  the  conspiracy  lost  their 
lives,  the  others  were  pardoned. 

Not  content  with  the  observation  of  others,  Peter  now  carried 
out  his  cherished  plan  of  seeing  with  his  own  eyes  what  was  to 
be  seen  in  foreign  lands.  He  set  out  in  the  train  of  a large  em- 
bassy, ostensibly  headed  by  Lefort,  and  visited  the  Baltic  prov- 
inces, Germany,  and  Holland.  In  the  guise  of  an  obscure 
traveller,  he  mingled,  freely  with  the  people,  and  made  himself 
acquainted  with  everything  that  came  in  his  way.  He  visited 
every  place  of  interest,  — not  only  museums,  collections,  galleries, 
and  the  like,  but  factories,  workshops,  arsenals,  and  ship-yards. 

He  took  lessons  in  etching,  and  even  in  dentistry  and  shoe- 
making. As  a dentist  he  experimented  on  the  jaws  of  his  suite 
and  servants  ; he  mended  his  own  clothes,  and  made  himself  a 
pair  of  slippers.  At  Saardam,  a village  opposite  to  Amster- 
dam, the}’  still  show  the  house  in  which  he  lived  as  a ship-car- 
penter, but  that  is  not  the  real  place  where  he  worked  more 
than  four  months  at  ship-building.  That  was  the  wharf  of  the 
East  India  Company  at  Oostenburg,  where  he  had  himself 
registered  among  the  common  laborers  as  Carpenter  Peter  of 
Saardam,  and  shared  their  work.  He  carried  logs,  trimmed 
planks,  and  dressed  masts.  During  the  day  he  was  in  the  }’ard, 
and  at  night  he  conducted  his  correspondence,  or  studied  geom- 
etry and  navigation. 

In  the  following  year  he  visited  England,  whose 
king  had  sent  him,  as  a present,  a superb  yacht, 
the  Transport  Royal , armed  with  20  brass  cannon,  whose 
model  he  greatly  preferred  to  that  of  the  Dutch  ships.  The 
greater  part  of  his  stay  in  London,  which  lasted  about  three 
months,  was  occupied  chiefly  in  matters  relating  to  naviga- 
tion, ship-building,  and  the  mechanical  arts.  He  took  up  his 
abode  in  the  house  of  John  Evelyn,  at  Deptford,  near  the 
ship-yards,  and  not  far  from  the  Royal  Arsenal  at  Woolwich. 
King  William  III.  arranged  in  his  honor  a review  of  the  Eng- 


1698] 


PETER  THE  GREAT. 


197 


lisli  fleet  off  Spithead,  and  a sham-fight,  which  drew  forth  from 
him  the  delighted  expression,  “ If  I were  not  the  czar  of  Rus- 
sia, I should  like  to  be  an  English  admiral.” 

From  England  he  sailed  in  the  Transport  Royal  to  Amster- 
dam, and  proceeded,  by  way  of  Germany,  to  Vienna,  intending 
to  visit  Venice  in  order  to  augment  his  knowledge  in  ship- 
building, especially  in  the  construction  of  vessels  suited  to 
service  in  the  Black  Sea. 

On  the  eve  of  his  intended  departure  for  Italy,  Peter  received 

the  news  of  the  revolt  of  the  Strelitz,  and  returned  to  r 

7 1 698 

Russia,  resolved  to  punish  the  offenders. 

He  had  visited  the  most  civilized  lands,  and  learned  much 
of  the  arts  of  civilization,  but  returned  as  uncivilized  in  heart 
and  soul  as  he  went.  Suspecting  his  sister  Sophia  to  be  im- 
plicated in  the  revolt,  the  numerous  prisoners  were  put  to  the 
torture,  or,  as  it  used  to  be  called,  subjected  to  criminal  investi- 
gation, in  order  to  draw  forth  from  them  confessions.  The 
means  employed  were  the  batogs , the  knout,  and  the  fire.  The 
prisoner  was  held  down  by  two  men,  one  at  his  head  and 
another  at  his  feet,  armed  with  thin,  short  rods,  with  which  they 
struck  him  on  his  back  until  the  batogs  broke.  Another  prisoner 
was  either  hoisted  upon  the  back  of  another  man  or  drawn  up 
with  his  hands  tied  behind,  and  his  feet  loaded  with  a heavy 
weight,  received  with  a thong  of  hard  leather  ending  in  a loop 
or  ring  as  many  cruel  strokes  as  the  judge  had  appointed ; that 
was  the  knout.  A third  prisoner  had  his  hands  and  feet  tied 
and  was  laid  on  a pole,  which  being  raised  by  four  men,  two  at 
each  end,  was  held  with  his  back  over  a slow  fire.  The  confes- 
sions obtained  by  these  examinations,  at  which  Peter  himself  was 
present  not  only  as  spectator,  but  as  examiner , resulted  in  the 
conviction  and  capital  punishment  of  more  than  2,000  Strelitz. 

They  were  either  beheaded,  or  hanged,  or  broken  on  the 
wheel,  and  those  under  20  years  of  age  were  branded  in  the 
right  cheek  and  sent  into  exile. 

Although  nothing  was  proved  against  Sophia,  Peter  believed 


198 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


her  guilty,  and  forced  her  to  become  a nun  in  the  convent  of 
Novodevitchy,  and  the  unfortunate  princess  was  compelled  to 
witness  the  hanging  of  195  culprits  in  front  of  her  cell,  three  of 
whom,  convicted  of  having  petitioned  her  to  ascend  the  throne, 
were  hung  up  under  her  windows,  one  of  them  with  the  petition 
in  his  hand,  and  kept  there  all  the  winter.  It  is  asserted  that 
not  only  Menchikof  and  many  nobles,  but  Peter  himself,  with 
their  own  hands,  acted  as  headsmen.1 

His  cruel  and  brutal  conduct  is  historically  established.  His 
first  wife  Eudoxia,  whom  some  writers  accuse  of  sympathy  with 
the  revolutionists,  he  compelled  to  give  up  her  son,  the  czare- 
vitch Alexis,  and  to  take  the  veil.  That  son,  when  he  had 
attained  man’s  estate,  dared  to  oppose  his  reforms,  and  suffered 
for  his  temerity  not  only  exclusion  from  the  line  of  succession, 
17181  ^ut  imPrisonmen^  an^  death.  It  was  reported  that  he 
died  from  the  terror  and  agitation  caused  by  his  trial, 
but  general  opinion  said  that  he  was  beheaded  in  prison. 

Prince  Czerbatof,  one  of  the  friends  of  the  unfortunate  Alexis, 
was  punished  with  the  knout,  and  deprived  of  his  nose  and 
tongue ; Sopuchin,  the  brother  of  Eudoxia,  and  the  archbishop 
of  Pesan  lost  their  heads. 

Lefort,  who  died  in  1699,  was  succeeded  by  Menchikof  in  the 
intimate  friendship  of  Peter.  The  story  of  his  early  life  is  ob- 
scure ; he  is  said  to  have  sold  pies  in  the  streets  of  Moscow, 
but  it  is  known  that  he  was  one  of  the  play  soldiers  in  the  early 
days  at  Preobrashenskoe.  He  was  handsome,  witty,  lively,  very 
intelligent,  and  fond  of  the  same  pursuits  as  Peter.  The  com- 
panion of  his  journey,  and  in  the  ship-yards,  he  rapidly  rose  in 
the  favor  of  the  czar,  and  became  his  chief  adviser.  He  ex- 


1 “John  George  Korb,  the  Austrian  agent,  who  as  an  eye-witness  has 
left  us  an  authentic  account  of  the  executions,  heard  that  five  rebel  heads 
had  been  sent  into  the  dust  by  blows  from  an  axe  wielded  by  the  noblest 
hand  in  Russia.  The  terrible  carpenter  of  Saardam  worked  and  obliged 
his  boyards  to  work  at  this  horrible  employment.  Seven  other  days  were 
employed  in  this  way.”  — Rambaud,  “ History  of  Russia,”  vol.  I.  p.  305. 


1700-1718.] 


PETER  THE  GREAT. 


199 


celled  both  in  the  field  and  in  politics,  and  was  the  chief  pro- 
moter of  the  many  reforms  introduced  into  the  domestic  affairs 
of  the  country. 

Some  of  these  were  very  curious.  The  Russians  from  time 
immemorial  had  cherished  a fondness  for  very  long  beards  and 
very  long  coats.  The  czar  thought  that  the  clipping  of  both 
was  essential  to  civilization,  and  commanded  those  relics  of 
ancient  barbarism  to  be  removed.  A decree  went  forth  requir- 
ing all  men  except  the  clergy  to  shave,  and  imposing  a yearly 
tax  ranging  from  two  cents  to  $200,  on  those  who  preferred  to 
wear  beards.  Peter  himself  had  very  little  beard,  and  shaved ; he 
wore  a little  line  of  moustache,  which  became  the  fashion  of  his 
court.  Bearded  men  were  excluded  from  his  presence.  Soon 
after  a decree  was  published  commanding  the  court  and  officials 
throughout  the  empire  to  discard  the  old  Russian  costume,  and 
wear  the  new  style  according  to  German  and  Dutch  models 
which  were  hung  up  at  all  the  gates.  The  disobedient  had  either 
to  pay  a fine,  or  were  required  to  kneel  at  the  gate  and  have 
their  coats  cut  off  by  so  much  as  they  trailed  on  the  ground  in 
that  attitude.  The  women  also  were  required  to  conform  to  the 
newly  favored  English  fashion. 

About  the  same  time  Peter  declared  himself  and  his  succes- 
sors as  head  of  the  National  Church,  and  established  schools  in 
which  education  was  not  only  commended  but  made  compulsory 
within  certain  limits.  The  parent  with  an  income  of  $1,000  who 
neglected  to  give  his  children  a school  education,  was  deprived 
of  the  right  of  making  them  his  heirs.  He  encouraged  the 
establishment  of  printing-presses,  the  translation  of  the  works 
of  famous  writers,  trade  with  foreign  countries,  and  urged  youth 
to  follow  his  example  in  visiting  them. 

The  naval  enthusiasm  of  Peter  made  him  long  for  convenient 
access  to  the  Baltic,  and  covet  the  possession  of  the  Swedish 
provinces,  which  he  pretended  belonged  of  right  to  Russia. 
He  formed  an  alliance  with  the  kings  of  Poland  and 
Denmark  in  a combined  attack  against  Charles  XII.,  the 


[l  700 


200 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


1700] 


youthful  king  of  Sweden.  Against  all  expectation  that  dashing 
and  daring  prince  compelled  the  Danes  to  conclude  the  peace  of 
Travendahl,  and  gained  the  great  victory  of  Narva 
over  the  Russians.  Peter,  not  at  all  disheartened  by 
the  defeat  of  his  troops,  waited  until  the  Swedes  were  in  Poland 
after  Augustus  the  Strong,  fell  upon  and  conquered  Ingria, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  his  new  capital  on  an  island  in  the 
Neva,  which  in  honor  of  the  Apostle  St.  Peter,  he  called  St. 
Petersburg. 

With  his  usual  energy  he  summoned  many  thousands  of  work- 
men  from  the  remotest  parts  of  his  empire,  who  were 
at  work  day  and  night  in  struggling  with  a terrible 
climate  and  natural  difficulties,  without  adequate  tools  and  appli- 
ances. For  want  of  carts  and  wheelbarrows  the  earth  was  car- 
ried in  sacks,  and  every  vehicle  was  required  to  bring,  at  least, 
three  stones  to  give  stability  to  the  marshy  soil,  and  raise 
it  to  the  required  height.  The  fortress  was  completed  in  four 
months,  and  the  building  of  the  city  itself  progressed  so  rapidly 
that  in  less  than  ten  years  it  numbered  several  thousands  of 
houses.  Great  inducements  were  held  out  to  new  settlers,  who 
flocked  in  great  numbers  to  the  new  capital.  Every  town  and 
village  was  required  to  furnish  a contingent  of  traders,  me- 
chanics, and  artisans  to  settle  there  with  their  families.  The 
workmen  also  became  permanent  residents.  Hundreds  of  the 
nobility  at  Moscow  were  obliged  to  spend  the  winter  there,  and 
many  foreigners  made  it  their  home.  Under  these  conditions  it 
speedily  rose  in  importance,  and  became  one  of  the  most  popu- 
lous and  beautiful  cities  of  the  world. 

Peter’s  contest  with  Charles  XII.  was  decided  in  the  battle  of 
July  8,  Pultowa,  the  capital  of  the  Ukraine,  in  South  Russia, 
1709  with  the  result  that  the  Swedes  were  totally  routed, 
their  cannon,  baggage,  and  treasure  were  captured,  4,000  were 
slain  in  the  field,  and  their  king  had  to  accept  Turkish  hospi- 
tality at  Bender. 

At  the  instigation  of  Charles  XII.  Turkey  declared  war 


1700-1721.] 


PETER  THE  GREAT. 


201 


against  Peter,  who  invaded  Moldavia  with  an  army  of  80,000 
men  ; he  advanced  too  far,  and  found  himself  in  a terrible  situa- 
tion on  the  Pruth ; the  river  was  behind  him,  and  a superior 
Turkish  force  in  the  form  of  a crescent  pressed  him  in  front  and 
harassed  his  flanks.  He  believed  himself  lost,  and  in  his  con- 
sternation could  think  only  of  captivity  or  death.  From. this 
dreadful  dilemma  he  was  extricated  by  the  astute  Catharine, 
who  was  with  him,  and  succeeded  by  bribery  in  obtaining  from  the 
Turkish  vizier  a treaty  of  peace,  on  extremely  easy  terms.  Peter 
promised  to  restore  to  the  Turks  Azof  and  the  territory  jULY  23, 
belonging  to  it,  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  Poland,  1711 
and  to  stop  molesting  the  Cossacks  ; the  Turks  good-naturedly 
and  foolishly  not  only  believed  him,  but  actually  furnished  him 
with  provisions,  and  protected  him  from  the  attacks  of  the 
Tartar  irregulars  who  swarmed  around  his  army. 

Catharine,  who  had  been  privately  married  to  Peter  in  1707, 

was  rewarded  for  her  services  on  the  Pruth,  by  her  r 

J 1712 

public  elevation  to  the  throne  ; the  loss  of  Azof,  in  the 

Black  Sea,  was  followed  by  the  conquest  of  Finland  and  other 

successes  against  the  Swedes,  which  were  finally  settled  in  the 

peace  of  Nystadt,  by  which  Russia  secured  the  pos-  r172| 

session  of  the  coveted  Baltic  provinces,  undertook  to 

pay  to  Sweden  the  sum  of  $2,000,000,  and  restore  to  her  the 

greater  part  of  Finland. 

Catharine,  who  had  risen  from  the  obscure  position  of  a 
chambermaid  in  a clergyman’s  family  to  imperial  splendor, 
accompanied1 2  Peter  on  his  second  visit  to  Western  Europe,  and 


1 Rambaud,  “ History  of  Russia/’  vol.  II.  p.  50,  who  is  rather  prejudiced 
against  Catharine,  says  that  Peter  did  not  dare  to  take  her  with  him  to 
Paris. 

What  ladies  thought  of  her  in  Germany  may  be  gathered  from  the 
following  passage  in  a letter  written  by  the  margravine  of  Baireutli : — 
“The  Czarina  was  small  and  clumsily  made,  very  much  tanned,  and 
without  either  grace  or  an  air  of  distinction.  You  had  only  to  see  her  to 
know  that  she  was  low-born.  Prom  her  usual  costume  you  would  have 


202 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


Oct.  22. 


Aug.  23. 


1724] 


shared  his  throne  in  the  celebration  of  the  peace,  in 
which  he  assumed  the  style  and  title  of  u Emperor  of 
all  the  Russias.” 

In  the  following  year,  the  ambitious  and  enterprising  czar 
took  advantage  of  the  turbulent  condition  of  Persia,  invaded 
that  countiy,  made  his  entry  at  Derbend,  and  obtained 
from  the  feeble  shah  the  three  Caspian  provinces,  as 
well  as  the  cities  of  Derbend  and  Baku.  These  valuable  acqui- 
sitions, of  the  utmost  importance  to  Russian  commerce, 
were  guaranteed  to  the  czar  in  the  treaty  of  partition 
concluded  between  him  and  the  sultan. 

Ever  vigilant,  and  bent  upon  adventure,  Peter  dispatched 
captain  Behring  on  a voyage  of  exploration,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain the  then  unknown  limits  of  Northern  Asia,  it  being  the  gen- 
eral belief  at  that  time  that  Asia  and  America  were  connected 
by  land.  The  discovery  of  the  strait  which  bears  his  name 
belongs  to  a later  date. 

In  consequence  of  a cold  contracted  by  imprudent  exposure, 
Jan.  28,  Peter  died,  after  a painful  illness,  and  was  succeeded 
1725  by  his  widow  Catharine. 

The  Russians  gave  him  the  endearing  appellation  of  4 4 Father 
of  his  Country,”  to  which,  however,  he  is  not  entitled  on  the 
same  grounds  upon  which  we  have  accorded  it  to  George  Wash- 
ington. 


Doubtless  he  raised  Russia  to  a position  of  commanding  im- 
portance, by  territorial  aggrandizement,  and  vast  strides  in 
civilization ; but  want  of  proper  education  and  deficiency  in 
self-government,  as  well  as  the  invincible  strength  of  native 
despotism,  made  him  rather  an  object  of  terror  than  of  affection. 
That  despotism  found  expression  in  one  of  the  latest  of  his 


taken  her  for  a German  comedian.  Her  dress  had  been  bought  at  a 
second-hand  shop ; it  was  very  old-fashioned,  and  covered  with  silver  and 
dirt.  She  had  a dozen  orders,  and  as  many  portraits  of  saints  or  reliqua- 
ries, fastened  all  down  her  dress  in  such  a way  that  when  she  walked  you 
would  have  thought  by  the  jingling  that  a mule  was  passing.” 


1722-1725] 


PETER  THE  GREAT 


203 


public  measures,  the  celebrated  law  of  succession,  promulgated 
in  virtue  of  which  it  is  the  czar’s  inalienable  pre-  Feb.  5,  1722 
rogative  to  name  his  own  successor,  and  to  revoke  such  nomi- 
nation at  his  pleasure. 

Peter  himself  did  not  nominate  his  successor,  and  Catharine 
became  empress  by  acclamation. 

Judged  by  the  standard  of  his  own  county,  in  his  age,  he 
deserved  to  be  called  great ; but  by  the  loftier  standard,  which 
refuses  that  epithet  to  those  who  fail  to  practise  the  virtues  of 
temperance,  chastity,  and  mercy,  he  is  not  entitled  to  it.  His 
energy,  perseverance,  and  liberality,  his  patronage  of  art  and 
science,  the  impetus  he  gave  to  commerce,  and  his  great  execu- 
tive ability  in  war  and  in  peace,  are  worthy  the  applause  and 
imitation  of  mankind ; but  his  savage  cruelty  and  injustice  must 
always  expose  him  to  the  censure  of  the  good. 

REFERENCES. 

The  General  Histories,  and  Eugene  Schuyler,  “Peter  the  Great,” 
2 vols.,  N.Y.  1884.  Rambaud,  “ History  of  Russia,”  2 vols.,  N.Y. 
1886,  which  contains  a very  full  list  of  works  on  Russia.  For  the 
Swedish  war,  Voltaire,  “ Charles  XII.” 


204 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


1740-1786]  FREDERIC  THE  GREAT. 

Frederic  William  I.,  king  of  Prussia,  was  an  unculti- 
vated, despotic  man,  whose  sole  end  in  life  was  soldiering,  and 
who  believed  that  drill  was  its  most  important  duty.  His  son 
born  Frederic’s  military  training  began  with  his  eighth 
Jan. 24,  year;  in  his  tenth  year  he  was  put  into  a uniform, 
and  required  to  perform  the  duties  of  a private : he 
had  to  mount  guard,  and  stand  sentry  in  the  castle-yard.  The 
harsh  and  rigid  treatment  to  which  he  was  subjected,  and  his 
natural  fondness  for  study  and  music,  which  were  hateful  to  his 
father,  made  his  early  life  very  unhappy.  His  father  said  of 
him,  u Fritz  is  a piper  and  a poet ; he  cares  nought  for  soldiery, 
and  will  spoil  all  my  work.”  His  mother,  who  sympathized 
with  her  son  and  pitied  him,  did  all  she  could  to  promote  his 
happiness,  and  enable  him  to  gratify  his  taste  for  music. 

But  it  had  to  be  done  by  stealth.  One  day,  after  drill, 
young  Frederic  had  exchanged  his  uniform  for  a dressing- 
gown,  had  his  hair  dressed  by  a barber,  and  was  playing  the 
flute  with  his  music-master,  when  some  one  entered  the  room  and 
frightened  all  present  with  the  dread  news  that  the  king  was  com- 
ing. The  music-master  rushed  to  hide  himself  in  the  fireplace  ; 
Frederic  covered  up  his  flute  and  music,  hid  his  dressing-gown, 
and  donned  his  uniform  ; the  king  entered  the  room  and  de- 
tected the  offending  articles.  He  seized  the  dressing-gown 
and  burned  it ; the  books,  and  had  them  returned  to  the 
bookseller ; he  sent  for  the  surgeon  barber  and  told  him  to 
crop  Frederic’s  hair.  Some  say  that  he  pulled  him  by  the  hair. 

Frederic  had  also  a strong  taste  for  French  literature,  and 
his  thoughtful  mind  invaded  the  fields  of  science  and  religion*. 


1712-1732.]  FREDERIC  THE  GREAT . 


205 


[l  730 


which  were  peculiarly  obnoxious  to  his  father ; he  also  loved 
his  mother,  and  that  was  an  offence.  The  relations  between 
the  father  and  the  son  became  exceedingly  unpleasant,  and  the 
latter,  recoiling  from  the  idea  of  being  married  against  his 
inclination,  and  unwilling  to  submit  any  longer  to  the  indig- 
nities of  tyrannical  caprice,  tried  to  escape  to  the  court 
of  his  uncle,  George  II.  of  England. 

The  preparations  had  been  made,  and  two  of  his  friends, 
Katt  and  Keith,  had  engaged  to  assist  him.  The  plan  was 
discovered,  and  the  prince  arrested  on  the  eve  of  its  execution 
and  taken  before  his  father,  whose  fury  rose  to  madness.  He 
drew  his  sword  to  thrust  him  through,  but  was  prevented 
through  the  generous  interposition  of  General  Mosel,  who 
sprang  between,  exclaiming,  u Kill  me,  but  save  your  son ! ” 
Frederic  was  sent  as  a deserter  to  the  fortress  of  sei*t.  1730- 
Kustrin,  and  kept  many  months  in  close  confine-  Feb.  1732 
ment.  Of  his  abettors,  Keith,  having  received  timely  warning 
from  the  prince,  made  his  escape  to  England ; but  poor  Katt 
was,  like  the  prince,  taken  as  a deserter  to  the  same  fortress, 
tried  by  a court-martial,  and  in  spite  of  the  court’s  recom- 
mendation to  mercy,  put  to  death  under  the  very  window  of  his 
friend.  But  for  the  intercession  of  the  kings  of  Sweden  and 
Poland,  and  of  the  emperor,  the  royal  t}Trant  and  martinet 
would  have  meted  out  the  same  fate  to  his  son. 

A pliant  court-martial  found  him  guilty,  but  general  Bud- 
denbrock  protested,  saying,  “If  your  majesty  are  athirst  for 
blood,  shed  mine  ; his  you  shall  not  have  so  long  as  I can 
speak  ! ” So  spoke  the  prince  of  Dessau,  and  the  king  at  last 
abandoned  his  vile  and  cruel  purpose. 

The  severity  of  his  confinement  after  a while  became  re- 
laxed, he  sued  for  pardon,  promised  obedience,  accepted  a wife 
from  his  father’s  hand,  and  a reconciliation  took  place.  On 
the  wedding  day  of  his  sister  he  was  bidden  to  come  to  Berlin, 
and  the  king  took  him  to  his  mother,  saying,  “ Well,  Fritz  is 
back  again.”  He  was  restored  to  his  place  in  the  army,  and 


206 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


1734] 


the  king,  in  token  of  his  favor,  gave  him  a private  establish- 
ment at  Rheinsberg,  near  the  frontier  of  Mecklenburg, 
where  he  resided  until  his  elevation  to  the  throne. 

In  the  retirement  of  that  lovely  spot  he  had  leisure  with 
caution  to  indulge  his  own  tastes  in  the  cultivation  of  literature, 
music,  and  horticulture,  and  to  surround  himself  with  men  of 
parts,  especially  those  of  French  extraction. 

His  relations  with  the  king  continued  on  the  whole  quite 
pleasant ; he  kept  his  regiment  in  good  order,  and  his  father  in 
good  humor  by  occasional  presents  in  the  shape  of  a grenadier 
six  feet  eight  or  six  feet  nine  inches  high,  for  the  sight  of  tall 
soldiers  was  the  very  joy  of  his  heart.  That  father  is  actually 
credited  with  having  exclaimed  before  he  closed  his  eyes,  “My 
son,  I die  contented,  seeing  that  I shall  have  so  worthy  a 
successor.” 

Little  was  known  of  the  character  of  Frederic  at  the  time  of 
may  31,  his  accession.  The  ability  and  energy  with  which  he 
1740  entered  upon  the  active  duties  of  his  reign  excited 
surprise  and  admiration.  In  a time  of  dearth,  he  caused  the 
royal  stores  of  breadstuff  to  be  sold  at  a low  price,  and  he 
cut  short  the  expectations  of  the  Rheinsberg  coterie  by  the 
pithy  announcement  of  his  future  policy,  “No  more  of  these 
fooleries.” 

He  abolished  torture  in  criminal  investigations,  and  an- 
nounced his  spirit  of  toleration  in  matters  of  religion  in  the 
noble  phrase,  “ Any  man  may  find  salvation,  as  he  pleases,  in 
my  dominions.”  The  late  king  had  not  only  bequeathed  to 
him  a splendid  army,  but  also  a large  war-fund,  and  he  meant 
to  make  good  use  of  both.  Opportunity  soon  presented  itself, 
when  Maria  Theresa,  under  the  new  law  of  succession  known 
as  the  “Pragmatic  Sanction,”  upon  the  death  of  her  father, 
Oct.  20,  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  ascended  the  throne  of 
1740  Austria. 

Frederic,  ostensibly  on  the  plea  of  antiquated  claims  on 
Silesia,  but  really  from  the  lust  of  power  and  conquest,  re- 


1734-1741.]  FREDERIC  THE  GREAT . 


207 


solved  to  possess  himself  of  that  province,  invaded  it  on  the 
principle  that  possession  is  nine  points  of  the  law,  and  his 
troops  defeated  the  Austrians  in  the  battle  of  Molwitz,  April  10, 
with  the  result  that  Breslau  surrendered  and  the  174 1 

greater  part  of  Silesia  was  occupied  by  the  Prussians.  The 
success  of  Frederic’s  robbery  startled  Europe,  and  the  easy 
conscience  of  rulers  jealous  of  Austria,  and  unwilling  to  let 
Prussia  alone  enjoy  the  plunder,  made  them  break  their 
plighted  guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  rush  to 
take  part  in  the  dismemberment  of  the  empire  of  the  young, 
beautiful,  interesting,  and  spirited  Maria  Theresa.  France, 
Spain,  and  Saxony  supported  Bavaria  in  her  alleged  right  to 
Bohemia,  and  concluded  a treaty  having  for  its  object  the 
partition  of  Austria.  Frederic  invaded  Moravia ; the  French 
and  the  Bavarians  marched  into  Upper  Austria  and  Bohemia, 
and  took  Prague.  The  elector  of  Bavaria  had  himself  pro- 
claimed archduke  of  Austria  at  Linz,  and  crowned  as  king  of 
Bohemia  at  Prague. 

The  fearless  empress,  with  her  infant  son,  the  future  emperor 
Joseph  II.,  hastened  to  Presburg  in  Hungary,  where  in  the 
sight  of  a vast  multitude  she  was  crowned  with  the  venerable 
crown,  and  arrayed  in  the  robes  of  St.  Stephen,  rode  up  the 
Mount  of  Defiance,  and  according  to  ancient  usage  unsheathed 
the  sword  of  state,  shook  it  towards  the  four  cardinal  points, 
and  challenged  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth  to  dispute  her 
rights  and  those  of  her  son.  This  happened  in  June  at  the 
first  sitting  of  the  Diet ; in  September,  she  appeared  in  deep 
mourning  before  them,  saying,  “Deserted  by  all,  I come  with 
my  son,  noble  Hungarians,  to  seek  your  protection,  committing 
to  your  fidelity  my  crowns,  my  honor,  and  my  liberty.”  The 
pathetic  appeal,  and  the  confidence  of  the  beautiful  woman, 
roused  the  enthusiasm  of  the  chivalrous  assembly,  who  drew 
their  swords,  shouting:  44  Let  us  die  for  our  king  Maria 
Theresa ! Our  blood  and  our  life  are  thine  ! ” They  rushed 
to  arms,  invaded  and  subdued  Bavaria,  while  the  elector  was 


208 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


1742] 


May  17. 
June  28. 


chosen  and  raised  to  the  imperial  throne  at  Frankfort 
on  the  Main. 

Frederic,  meanwhile,  changed  his  tactics  ; for,  unwilling  to  let 
others  rob  Maria  Theresa,  after  another  victory  over 
her  army  in  the  battles  of  Chotusitz  and  Czaslau,  a 
peace  was  concluded,  in  virtue  of  which  he  obtained 
Silesia,  abandoned  his  allies,  and  withdrew  his  troops  from 
Austria.  Maria  Theresa  was  now  able  to  turn  her  whole  force 
against  France  and  Bavaria.  The  French  were  driven  out  of 
Bohemia,  and  the  Hungarians  chased  the  new  emperor,  to  whom 
the  imperial  crown  had  become  a crown  of  thorns,  out  of  his 
dominions.  The  Austrians  took  Prague,  where  Maria  Theresa 
may  13,  was  crowned  queen  of  Bohemia,  and  in  the  flush  of 
1743  triumph  thought  of  recovering  Silesia,  and  her  generals 
spoke  of  punishing  France  in  the  re-conquest  of  Alsace. 

The  vain  and  ambitious  emperor  Charles  VII.,  who  had  fool- 
Jan.  20,  ishly  marched  into  Bohemia,  was  vanquished  by  the 
1745  Austrians,  and  died  suddenly.  His  son,  the  elector 
Maximilian  Joseph,  renounced  all  claims  to  Bohemia,  in  the 
peace  concluded  with  Austria,  and  cast  his  vote  in 
favor  of  Francis,  the  consort  of  Maria  Theresa,  who 
was  elected  emperor  of  Germany,  and  crowned  as 
Francis  I.,  at  Frankfort. 

Frederic  discerned  in  the  peace  between  Austria  and  Bavaria 
an  element  of  danger,  and  without  any  other  pretext  recom- 
menced hostilities,  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Hohen- 
friedberg  and  Striegau,  while  general  Dessau  gained  a 
victory  over  the  Saxons  at  Kesselsdorf , followed  by  still  another 
at  Sorr.  Then  followed  the  Peace  of  Dresden,  in  which  Frederic 
was  guaranteed  the  possession  of  Silesia,  and  Saxony 
mulcted  in  an  indemnity  of  a million  of  German  thalers. 

Prussia  was  now  at  peace,  but  the  war  between  Austria  and 
France  continued  in  the  Netherlands  and  Italy  until  the  conclu- 
Oct.  7,  sion  of  a general  peace  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  which 
1748  Frederic  alone  was  the  gainer.  He  had  Silesia,  and 


April  22. 


Sept.  13. 


Tune  4. 


Dec.  25. 


1742-1759.] 


FREDERIC  THE  GREAT . 


209 


the  reputation  of  being  a master  in  the  art  of  war,  an  astute 
diplomat,  and  an  able  administrator. 

Then  followed  eleven  years  of  peace,  which  Frederic  devoted 
to  the  organization  of  his  army,  to  civil  reforms,  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  finances,  and  to  literary  pursuits,  conducted,  how- 
ever, in  French,  not  in  German.  French  was  his  favorite 
language  ; he  read  French  books,  French  was  spoken  at  liis 
table,  and  in  French  he  wrote.  Frenchmen  were  his  favorite 
associates,  notably  Voltaire,  who  spent  some  time  at  his  court, 
but  left  it  in  disgrace  and  in  disgust. 

As  a ruler  Frederic  was  all  in  all.  The  whole  government 
centred  in  his  person ; he  directed  everything  down  to  the 
minutest  detail,  and  his  ministers  were  only  the  executors  of  his 
will.  His  industry  was  wonderful,  and  his  capacity  for  work 
truly  phenomenal.  He  rose  at  three  in  summer,  at  four  in 
winter ; a few  minutes  sufficed  for  his  toilet ; he  attended  forth- 
with to  the  vast  number  of  letters,  reports,  proposals,  applica- 
tions, petitions,  etc.,  which  had  arrived  during  the  night; 
distrustfully  he  looked  at  their  seals  before  he  opened  and  read 
them  ; he  sorted  them,  criticised  their  contents  or  their  writers, 
and  indicated  to  his  secretaries  his  pleasure.  Then  came  his 
military  aides  to  present  their  reports,  and  receive  his  com- 
mands. 

A simple  repast  of  coffee  and  rolls  was  his  breakfast.  Two 
hours  of  recreation  he  spent  in  playing  the  flute,  and  walking 
up  and  down,  thinking.  His  secretaries,  who  in  the  meantime 
had  made  abstracts  of  the  official  correspondence  referred  to, 
received  orally,  or  in  writing  on  the  margin,  his  final  instructions. 
The  remainder  of  the  morning  was  devoted  to  reading,  writing, 
the  review  of  the  guards  and  parades.  The  soldier  who  had  any 
part  of  his  arms,  or  his  uniform,  out  of  order,  was  sure  to  be 
detected,  reproved,  or  punished.  Nothing  escaped  his  eagle 
glance. 

Dinner,  prepared  according  to  the  bill  of  fare  furnished  by  him- 
self every  morning,  was  served  at  noon,  and  enlivened  by  the 


210 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


conversation  of  the  wittiest  and  keenest  intellects  he  could  find, 
and  his  own  epigrammatic,  satirical,  or  sarcastic  sallies.  The 
indefatigable  secretaries  then  brought  the  letters  they  had 
written,  for  his  signature.  After  that  he  took  a short  constitu- 
tional walk,  followed  by  literary  work  from  four  to  six,  and  a 
concert  from  six  to  seven,  in  which  he  often  appeared  among 
the  performers.  The  supper,  which  concluded  the  day,  wras  an 
animated  and  entertaining  meal,  and  often  protracted  to  mid- 
night. Although  he  loved  good  eating  and  drinking,  and  enter- 
tained on  a large  scale,  the  strict  economy  he  practised,  and 
which  might  be  called  parsimonious,  kept  the  whole  charge  of 
his  kitchen  within  an  annual  expenditure  of  $10,000. 

Such  was  the  daily  life  of  Frederic  the  Great  at  home,  which 
he  never  varied  except  in  his  campaigns  and  journeys.  When  he 
was  travelling,  he  inspected  everything  with  his  own  eyes,  and 
the  provincial  and  district  officials  were  required  to  accompany 
him  on  horseback,  take  turns  at  his  carriage  window,  and 
present  their  oral  reports. 

In  those  years  of  peace  the  injured  Maria  Theresa  was  bend- 
ing all  the  energies  of  her  intense  character  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  dominant  purpose  of  her  life,  of  humbling  to  the 
dust  the  upstart  king,  whom  she  hated  as  a robber,  a perjurer, 
and  an  infidel.  She  was  the  soul  of  the  formidable,  though  as 
yet  secret,  understanding  between  Russia,  France,  Saxony,  the 
Germanic  Body,  Sweden,  and  Austria,  which  contemplated  the 
dismemberment  of  Prussia.  Frederic  had  his  spies  and  tools 
in  every  court,  who  kept  him  advised  of  everything ; and  he 
received  so  many  consistent  reports  from  all  directions  that 
he  could  not  doubt  the  reality  of  the  project,  which,  if  he 
allowed  it  to  be  carried  into  effect,  would  certainly  annihilate 
him  ; so  he  boldly  and  wisely  determined,  by  striking  the  first 
blow,  to  terrify  his  adversaries,  and  better  his  desperate  con- 
dition. 

Prompt  to  act,  he  asked  Maria  Theresa  to  explain  her  inten- 
tions, saying,  “I  want  no  answer  in  the  style  of  an  oracle.” 


1756-1757.]  FREDERIC  THE  GREAT . 


211 


Her  reply  was  evasive  and  haughty,  but  his  acknowledgment 
plain,  unmistakable,  and  emphatic. 

An  army  of  60,000  Prussians,  without  a previous  declaration 
of  war,  entered  Saxony,  and  thus  began  the  Seven  august, 
Years’  War.  The  elector  Augustus  held  a strong  posi-  1756 
tion  with  an  army  of  17,000  opposite  to  the  lofty  and  impregna- 
ble fortress  of  Konigstein,  and  expected  succor  from  the 
Austrian  general  Browne,  who  was  approaching  at  the  head  of 
an  army  of  60,000  to  his  relief. 

Frederic  invested  the  Saxon  camp,  and  took  Dresden,  where 
his  soldiers  possessed  themselves  in  the  very  bed-chamber  of 
the  queen  of  Poland  of  a trunk  containing  the  Saxon  State 
Papers  of  a recent  date,  which  furnished  abundant  evidence  of 
the  designs  of  the  coalition.  Frederic  caused  the  most  damag- 
ing documents  to  be  published  at  once,  as  the  best  and  most 
convincing  explanation  of  his  course. 

Leaving  a portion  of  his  army  to  look  after  the  Saxon  camp, 
he  advanced  against  Browne,  and  in  the  battle  of 
Lowositz  not  only  defeated  him,  but  decided  the  fate 
of  Saxony,  for  Augustus  having  fled  to  his  kingdom  of  Poland, 
the  famished  and  frost-bitten  Saxons  capitulated  en  masse . The 
officers  were  dismissed  on  their  word  of  honor,  but  the  rank  and 
file  converted  into  Prussian  soldiers.  Frederic  went  into 
winter-quarters  in  Saxony,  and  exacted  from  the  conquered 
province  all  the  supplies  necessary  for  his  troops. 

The  real  tug  of  war,  however,  did  not  come  until  the  follow- 
ing year,  when  Frederic,  who  could  not  muster  more  than 
200,000  men,  saw  arrayed  against  him' half  a million  of  Aus- 
trians, German  Imperials,  French,  Russians,  and  Swedes.  Early 
in  the  year  Frederic  poured  his  troops  into  Bohemia,  r1757 
and  encountered  under  the  walls  of  Prague  the  Aus- 
trian army,  commanded  by  Charles,  duke  of  Lorraine,  and 
marshal  Browne.  A murderous  battle  was  fought,  in  which 
Frederic  gained  the  victory  ; but  it  was  dear  bought,  for  18,000 
of  his  men  lay  on  the  field,  among  them  the  heroic  and  aged 


212 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


Schwerin,  who,  when  the  Prussian  infantry  wavered,  snatched 
the  colors  from  a fugitive  ensign,  waved  them  on  high,  shouting, 
“Come,  boys  !''  led  them  forward,  till,  pierced  by  four  balls,  he 
died  a soldier's  death. 

The  duke  of  Lorraine  was  shut  up  in  Prague ; but  Frederic 
had  to  withdraw  a body  of  30,000  men  from  the  besieging  army, 
to  oppose  the  cool  and  cautious  marshal  Daun,  who,  at  the  head 
of  60,000  men,  held  an  almost  impregnable  position  at  Kollin. 

He  attacked  him,  and  after  a frightful  carnage, 
met  with  a crushing  defeat,  entailing  the  loss  of  13,000 
men,  two  colors,  and  43  cannon.  Brooding  on  the  inconstancy 
of  fortune,  he  sat  that  night,  and  said,  with  tearful  eyes,  “ This 
has  been  a bad  day,  boys  ; but  have  patience,  I shall  soon  make 
things  all  right  again.”  There  was  nothing  to  be  done  but  to 
retreat  in  good  order,  raise  the  siege  of  Prague,  and  leave 
Bohemia. 

The  disastrous  day  of  Kollin  was  speedily  followed  by  other 
calamities ; the  duke  of  Cumberland,  his  ally,  had  been  beaten 
by  the  French  at  Hastenbeek,  in  Hanover,  and  made 

Sept.  7.  J " 

a convention  with  the  enenry  at  Kloster  Seven,  by 
which  his  own  electorate  was  saved  from  subjugation,  and  the 
French  were  at  liberty  to  assail  Frederic.  Another  army,  com- 
posed of  the  French  and  the  German  Imperials,  were  in  Thu- 
ringia,  a body  of  Russians  had  defeated  the  Prussians 
at  Grossjagerndorf,  the  Swedes  had  invaded  Pomer- 
ania, and  even  Berlin  had  tasted  the  bitterness  of  war,  in  the 
capture  and  plunder  of  the  Croatians. 

All  the  greatness  and  strength  of  Frederic's  character  shone 
in  his  conduct  under  that  cloud  of  calamities.  It  is  said  that 
he  was  always  prepared  for  the  worst,  and  that  it  was  his  in- 
flexible purpose  neither  to  surrender  the  contest,  nor  to  allow 
himself  to  be  taken  alive.  He  always  carried  about  his  person 
a sure  and  deadly  poison,  which  in  the  last  extremity  he  in- 
tended to  take.  But  that  extremity  never  came. 

On  his  return  from  Bohemia,  he  quickly  collected  a new  army, 


1757.] 


FREDERIC  THE  GREAT 


213 


and  took  the  field  against  the  allied  army  of  the  French  and  the 
German  Imperials,  who,  under  the  command  of  the  prince  of 
Soubise,  were  pushing  their  way  through  Thuringia.  The  armies 
met  at  Rossbach,  where  the  French,  at  least  twice  as  strong  as 
Frederic,  felt  secure  in  their  intrenched  camp.  He  attacked 
them,  and,  in  an  engagement  which  lasted  hardly  two 
hours,  defeated  them  so  signally  that  those  who  escaped 
the  swords  and  bullets  of  the  Prussians  never  rested  until  the 
green  waters  of  the  Rhine  gurgled  behind  them.  Frederic 
took  7,000  prisoners,  and  captured  their  cannon,  colors,  and 
baggage. 

Then  he  turned  round,  and  led  his  troops  into  Silesia,  where 
matters  seemed  hopeless,  for  Breslau  had  fallen,  and  Charles  of 
Lorraine  and  Daun  held  the  province  with  a superior  force,  not 
less  than  60,000,  and  perhaps  90,000,  strong.  Exactly  one 
month  after  the  battle  of  Rossbach  the  armies  met  at  D 5 
Leuthen,  a few  miles  west  of  Breslau.  The  line  of  the 
Austrians  extended  some  eight  miles,  and  Frederic,  to  prevent 
being  outflanked,  set  up  his  33,000  men  in  a diagonal  line.  A 
feigned  assault,  directed  against  the  Austrian  right,  masked  the 
true  attack,  which  burst  with  irresistible  strength  on  their  left, 
threw  the  whole  line  into  confusion,  and  accomplished  their 
overwhelming  defeat,  with  a loss  of  27,000,  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  prisoners,  59  stand  of  colors,  more  than  100  cannon,  and 
thousands  of  wagons.  Breslau  opened  its  gates,  Silesia  was  re- 
conquered, and  the  fame  of  Frederic  published  throughout  the 
world.  Napoleon  called  the  battle  of  Leuthen  a masterpiece, 
sufficient  to  entitle  Frederic  to  a place  in  the  first  rack  among 
generals. 

The  story  runs  that  Frederic,  with  a very  small  escort,  rode 
to  Lyssa,  in  order  to  secure  the  passage  of  an  important  sheet 
of  water.  He  reached  the  castle  in  advance  of  the  rest,  and 
stepped  among  the  Austrian  officers,  who  might  easily  have 
made  him  prisoner.  “ Good  evening,  gentlemen,”  he  said. 
“You  did  not  expect  me,  I presume?  May  I have  abed?” 


214 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


The  Austrian  officers  let  him  pass,  and  on  the  speedy  arrival 
of  his  generals,  surrendered  to  them. 

The  belligerents  renewed  their  preparations  for  further  con- 
test. On  the  side  of  Maria  Theresa  stood  Russia  and  France  ; 
on  that  of  Frederic,  England,  which  abrogated  the  convention 
of  Kloster  Seven,  and  sent  him  an  auxiliary  force,  designed  to 
drive  back  the  French,  and  placed  under  the  command  of  prince 
June  23,  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  who  not  only  drove  them 
1758  over  the  Rhine,  but  defeated  them  at  Crefeld. 

Frederic  passed  the  winter  at  Breslau,  took  Schweidnitz,  and 
invaded  Moravia  ; but  was  compelled  to  make  a masterly  retreat 
before  the  superior  numbers  of  the  enemy,  who  threatened  his 
line,  and  was  manoeuvring  to  isolate  him.  He  left  Keith  in 
Silesia,  and  marched  against  the  Russians,  who  were  wasting 
the  north  eastern  provinces  of  his  dominions.  The  stories  of 
their  savage  brutality  were  on  every  lip,  and  deepened  the  in- 
nate aversion  with  which  the  warriors  of  Frederic  loathed  their 
presence  on  German  soil.  A sanguinary  battle  was  fought  at 
9r  Zorndorf,  and  raged  throughout  the  long  August  day, 
until  the  combatants  were  utterly  exhausted.  Thirty 
thousand  victims  lay  on  the  field,  dead  or  wounded  ; the  wounded 
were  still  fighting  ; and  it  is  horrible  to  read  of  a wounded 
Russian  who  lay  on  a wounded  Prussian,  tearing  him  to  pieces 
with  his  teeth.  The  victory  was  Frederic’s,  who  had  thus, 
within  the  space  of  nine  months,  defeated  in  three  memorable 
battles  the  armies  of  France,  Austria,  and  Russia. 

These  splendid  triumphs,  however,  were  followed  by  reverses. 
Frederic,  who  after  the  defeat  of  the  Russians  had  hastened  to 
the  relief  of  his  brother,  met  the  Austrians  under  Daun,  the 
most  cautious,  and  Laudon,  the  most  dashing  and  ingenious,  of 
the  generals  of  Maria  Theresa.  It  was  their  plan  to  cut  off 
Frederic  from  Silesia ; and  they  surprised  him,  at  dead  of 
night,  in  an  insecure  position,  which  the  king  audaciously  but 
unwisely  had  chosen  right  before  the  enemy.  u If  the  Aus- 
trians allow  us  to  remain  here,  they  deserve  to  be  hanged,”  said 


1758-1759.] 


FREDERIC  THE  GREAT. 


215 


Keith.  “They  dread  us  more  than  the  gallows/’  replied  Fred- 
eric ; but  he  was  mistaken.  During  the  night  the  Austrians 
stealthily  circumvented  the  Prussian  position,  and 
drew  their  lines  around  it.  At  five  in  the  morning  the 
roar  of  their  own  artillery  awakened  the  Prussians  ; half  clad 
they  rushed  from  their  tents  to  resist  the  advance  of  Daun’s 
foot,  when  the  cavalry  of  Laudon  burst  upon  their  rear  and 
flanks,  and  mowed  them  down  by  rows.  The  carnage  was 
dreadful ; two  balls  killed  Keith,  a cannon-ball  carried  off  the 
head  of  prince  Francis  of  Brunswick,  Dessau  fell  mortally 
wounded.  In  the  darkness,  illumined  only  by  the  burning  houses 
of  Hochkirch,  and  the  dense  fog  which  covered  the  field  at  day- 
break, a regular  defence  was  impossible  ; but  after  sunrise  the 
Prussians  formed  in  line,  and  fighting,  accomplished  their  retreat 
in  good  order.  Frederic  lost  9,000  in  killed  and  wounded,  his 
cannon  and  baggage  ; but  the  defeat  only  quickened  his  energy. 
As  the  artillerists  filed  past  him  without  their  pieces,  he  asked 
jestingly,  “Well,  what  has  become  of  your  cannon?”  “The 

took  them  during  the  night ! ” shouted  the  men.  “Then  we 

must  take  them  from  him  by  day  !”  rejoined  the  king.  “ Aye, 
aye,”  answered  the  men,  “ and  he  shall  pay  us  the  interest,  too.” 

The  disaster  of  Hochkirch  was  quickly  repaired,  and  Frederic 
had  recovered  Silesia  and  Saxony  before  the  year  closed. 

In  the  following  year  troubles  thickened  ; the  allies  renewed 
and  increased  their  efforts  for  the  overthrow  of  Prussia.  Two 
French  armies  marched  against  Ferdinand  of  Bruns-  aug.  l, 
wick  and  were  defeated  at  Minden.  The  Russians,  1759 
after  defeating  Wedel  at  Kay,  effected  a junction  with  the 
Austrians,  and  Frederic  attacked  them  at  Kunnersdorf.  Early 
in  the  day  the  fortune  of  war  favored  the  Prussians, 

j 7 Aug.  12. 

who  scaled  with  great  gallantry  the  heights  on  which 
the  enemy  was  posted,  forced  the  left  wing  of  the  Russians, 
and  captured  half  the  cannon  ; elated  with  his  success,  the  king 
renewed  the  conflict,  and  led  his  men,  exhausted  by  six  hours’ 
hard  fighting  in  the  burning  heat  of  an  August  sun,  against  the 


216 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


enemy,  who  brought  fresh  troops  into  the  field,  and  turned  the 
victory  of  the  Prussians  into  a perfect  rout.  Frederic  himself 
had  a narrow  escape  from  capture,  and  at  night  he  wrote  in 
blank  despair:  “All  is  lost;  save  the  royal  family.”  A few 
hours  later:  “I  shall  not  survive  the  ruin  of  the  fatherland. 
Good-bye  forever.” 

With  his  handful  of  troops  he  would  have  been  lost  but  for 
the  jealousies  of  his  victors  ; he  gained  time,  and  had  soon  col- 
lected an  army  of  30,000  for  the  defence  of  Berlin ; but  the 
chain  of  his  misfortunes  was  not  yet  broken,  for  he  received 
the  evil  tidings  that  Daun,  after  the  capture  of  Dresden,  had 
taken  11,000  Prussians  prisoners  at  Maxen.  Thus  closed  the 
fourth  year  of  the  war. 

The  first  six  months  of  the  next  year  were  just  as  unfortunate, 
but  the  tide  turned  at  last  in  his  favor  in  two  brilliant 

1 7 OO 

victories,  the  one  over  Laudon  at  Liegnitz,  the  other 
over  Daun  at  Torgau,  by  which  he  recovered  Silesia  and  Sax- 
ony, but  not  Dresden. 

The  situation  of  Frederic  seemed  desperate  at  the  commence- 

ment  of  the  sixth  year  of  the  war.  His  resources  were 
17G1  * 

exhausted,  the  subsidy  from  England  had  ceased  to 

flow  ; he  could  not  take  the  offensive,  nor  prevent  the  junction  of 
Laudon  and  the  Russians.  Nothing  but  the  jealousies  of  the 
hostile  commanders  saved  him  from  ruin.  He  was  not  a relig- 
ious man,  but  the  veteran  general  Ziethen  was.  In  his  en- 
trenched camp  at  Bunzelwitz,  Frederic  looked  with  gloomy 
apprehension  to  the  near  future,  and  spoke  in  that  strain  to 
Ziethen,  who  bade  him  put  his  trust  in  God,  and  hope  for  the 
best.  The  king  asked  in  the  bitterness  of  his  heart,  if  he  had 
found  a new  ally  because  he  was  alwaj^s  speaking  so  hopefully 
of  a happy  future.  “ Why,”  said  the  old  blade,  “ I have  not 
found  a new  ally,  but  my  old  ally  above  will  not  leave  us  ! ” 
“ Pshaw,”  rejoined  Frederic,  “ but  he  does  not  work  any  more 
miracles.”  “They  are  unnecessary,”  quoth  Ziethen,  “ for  he 
will  fight  for  us,  and  save  us.” 


1760-1762.] 


FREDERIC  THE  GREAT. 


217 


[l  762 


His  faith  was  rewarded,  for  the  allies  did  not  attack  Fred- 
eric, and  the.  Russians,  for  want  of  provisions,  retreated  across 
the  Oder.  The  king  was  free,  and  said  to  Ziethen,  not  with- 
out emotion  at  this  almost  miraculous  deliverance,  u Your  ally 
has  kept  his  word.” 

The  events  of  the  year,  upon  the  whole,  were  disheartening, 
for  though  Henry,  the  king’s  brother,  had  held  his  own  in  Sax- 
ony, and  Ferdinand  kept  off  the  French,  Laudon  had  captured 
the  fortress  of  Schweidnitz,  and  the  Russians  Colberg.  Silesia 
and  Pomerania  seemed  lost  to  him. 

The  death  of  Elizabeth  and  the  elevation  of  her  nephew  Peter 
III.  to  the  throne,  was  an  unforeseen  event  of  vast 
moment  to  Frederic.  The  new  czar  was  an  enthusias- 
tic admirer  of  Frederic,  and  inaugurated  his  brief  and  unfortu- 
nate reign  by  a series  of  measures  of  incalculable  benefit  to 
Prussia,  and  of  still  greater  benefit  to  Europe,  in  hastening  the 
last  acts  of  the  terrible  war.  He  liberated  all  the  Prussian 
prisoners  of  war  without  ransom,  and  in  the  treaty  of  peace 
concluded  at  St.  Petersburg,  restored  to  Prussia  the 
provinces  which  Elizabeth  had  conquered,  and  ordered 
the  Russian  commander  Czernitchef  to  join  his  army  of  20,000 
men  to  that  of  Frederic.  Sweden  followed  the  exam- 
ple of  Russia  and  made  peace  with  Prussia. 

Frederic  lost  no  time  in  repairing  his  fortunes.  He  marched 
with  the  Russian  auxiliaries  into  Silesia,  and  encountered  the 
Austrians,  under  Daun,  at  Burkersdorf.  On  the  eve 
of  an  intended  assault,  Czernitchef  received  orders  to 
separate  his  army  from  that  of  Frederic,  in  consequence  of  the 
deposition  and  murder  of  Peter  III.  and  the  accession  of  his  wife, 
who  under  the  title  of  Catherine  II.  had  ascended  the  throne. 
The  Russian  commander  yielded  to  the  urgent  representations 
of  Frederic  in  suppressing  his  recall  for  the  space  of  three 
days,  and  giving  him  the  moral  support  of  his  presence,  as  his 
orders  forbade  his  participation,  in  the  impending 
engagement.  A battle  ensued  at  Burkersdorf,  in 


May  5. 


May  22. 


July  19. 


July  21. 


218 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


Oct.  9. 


Nov.  1. 


which  Daun  was  defeated.  Then  the  Russians  withdrew,  and 
Frederic  invested  and  took  the  fortress  of  Schweid- 
nitz. 

Prince  Henry  defeated  the  Austrians  and  German  Imperials 
0cT.  29.  ^ie  battle  of  Freiberg  in  Saxony,  and  Ferdinand  of 
Brunswick,  who  had  successfully  resisted  the  French, 
took  Cassel.  A Prussian  raid  against  the  German 
Imperials  scattered  the  contingents  to  their  several  principali- 
ties, and  Frederic  at  the  close  of  this  eventful  year,  though 
crippled  in  his  resources,  felt  strong  enough  to  renew  the 
struggle  with  Austria  single-handed. 

But  Austria  was  also  crippled,  and  unable  to  accomplish 
alone  the  overthrow  of  an  enemy  whom  she  had  tried  in  vain 
to  crush  with  the  powerful  aid  of  France  and  Russia. 

England  and  France,  by  mutual  agreement,  withdrew  from  the 
conflict  and  in  the  Peace  of  Paris  bound  themselves  to  neutral- 
ity". Catherine  II.  pursued  a similar  policy,  and  under  the 
influence  of  these  and  other  political  factors,  an  armistice  be- 
Feb.  15,  tween  Austria  and  Prussia  was  followed  by  negotia- 
1763  tions  for  peace,  which  was  concluded  at  Hubertusburg 
in  the  beginning  of  the  ensuing  year,  on  the  basis  of  a restora- 
tion of  things  to  what  they  were  before  the  war.  Frederic  lost 
nothing ; he  retained  Silesia  and  Glatz.  Augustus  recovered 
Saxony,  and  Maria  Theresa  received  the  promise  of  Frederic’s 
vote  in  favor  of  the  archduke  Joseph,  her  son,  at  the  impending 
election  of  a German  emperor. 

Crowned  with  victory  and  the  applause  of  mankind,  not  for 
the  greatness  of  his  conquests,  but  for  his  greatness  in  adver- 
sity, and  for  his  indomitable  strength  of  purpose,  he  entered 
Berlin  in  triumph  late  on  the  evening  of  a raw  March 
day.  The  city  was  illuminated,  and  as  he  rode  in  an 
open  carriage  with  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  at  his  side,  he  was 
moved  to  tears,  by  the  enthusiastic  and  loving  reception,  which 
the  people  accorded  to  him  after  an  absence  of  more  than  six 
years  of  terrible  suffering.  In  the  castle  church  at  Charlotten- 


1762-1763.]  FREDERIC  THE  GREAT. 


219 


burg  he  ordered  a solemn  Te  Deum.  It  was  expected  that 
Frederic  and  the  whole  court  would  be  present.  But  he  came 
alone ; and  when  the  strains  of  the  anthem  fell  upon  his  ears, 
the  tears  rolled  down  his  cheeks,  and  he  fell  upon  his  knees, 
to  express  thus  publicly  his  gratitude  to  God,  who,  true  to  old 
Ziethen’s  prediction,  had  fought  for  him  and  brought  him  safe 
out  of  all  his  troubles. 

The  destruction  in  life  and  property  which  the  war  had 
wrought  was  stupendous.  It  had  entailed  the  loss  of  not  less 
than  800,000  men ; Prussia  had  expended  $100,000,000, 
Saxony  estimated  her  pecuniary  loss  at  $60,000,000,  and 
Austria  had  increased  her  indebtedness  alone  by  nearly 
$100,000,000.  In  Hessia  and  Hanover  the  villages  were 
deserted  and  reduced  to  heaps  of  ashes.  The  French  had 
wasted  the  western  provinces,  the  Russians  those  in  the  East. 
Blooming  districts  had  become  howling  deserts  ; in  many  parts 
the  fields  lay  untilled,  for  the  seed-corn  had  been  consumed, 
the  cattle  slaughtered,  and  the  owners  had  perished  either 
in  battle  or  by  the  famine.  In  some  places  only  women 
were  left  to  attend  to  agricultural  pursuits.  Fifteen  thousand 
houses  had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  The  only  comfort  to  the 
stricken  people  was  the  almost  incredible  fact  that  Frederic  at 
the  close  of  the  war  could  cheer  them  with  the  assurance  that 
he  had  incurred  no  debt. 

To  repair  these  ravages  and  heal  these  wounds  Frederic  now 
strained  all  the  energies  of  his  nature.  He  opened  his  store- 
houses, filled  with  corn  against  another  campaign,  which,  for- 
tunately, did  not  take  place,  distributed  it  among  the  poor 
villagers,  and  gave  them  the  horses  which  had  been  bought  for 
military  use.  He  remitted  the  taxes  in  those  districts  which 
had  suffered  most  in  the  war,  and  encouraged  by  liberal  dona- 
tions, drawn  from  his  private  purse,  the  building  of  houses  and 
villages  ; settlers  received  aid  to  bring  waste  places  under  the 
plough.  New  roads  and  canals  were  constructed,  industry  was 
promoted,  and  education  raised  not  only  to  a higher  plane,  but 


220 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


made  compulsory.  His  hobby  was  the  army,  which  was,  and 
still  is,  the  most  important  factor  of  the  Prussian  monarchy. 

The  enlightened  liberality  of  Frederic,  already  adverted  to, 
was  remarkable,  and  decidedly  in  advance  of  his  age.  Liberty 
of  conscience  and  liberty  of  religious  belief,  or  if  any  man 
chose,  liberty  of  disbelief,  was  one  of  the  distinctive  features 
of  his  reign,  and  prompted,  among  other  things,  the  vast  intel- 
lectual life  which  has  raised  German  literature  to  the  command- 
ing position  it  occupies.  Frederic  freely  accorded  to  his  people 
the  fullest  freedom  in  the  use  of  the  press.  A man  might 
write  or  print  what  he  pleased,  and  even  offensive  lampoons 
directed  against  his  person  might  be  published  with  impunity. 
One  day  he  saw  a crowd  straining  their  eyes  to  read  a placard, 
and  rode  up  to  know  what  it  was ; perceiving  that  it  was  a 
satire  upon  himself,  he  ordered  it  to  be  placed  lower,  that  the 
people  might  read  it  without  difficulty,  observing  : u My  people 
and  I have  come  to  an  agreement  which  satisfies  us  both.  They 
are  to  say  what  they  please,  and  I am  to  do  what  I please.” 

Frederic’s  reign  after  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years’  War  con- 
tinued almost  undisturbed  for  twenty-three  years.  Restlessly 
Aug.  17,  active  to  the  last,  lie  died  at  Sanssouci,  in  the  75th 
1786  year  of  his  life,  generally  admired  and  honored 
by  his  peers,  loved  by  his  people,  and  almost  idolized  by  his 
army.  The  memory  of  his  singularities  and  exploits,  of  his 
wit  and  popularity,  continues  to  this  day,  and  the  Prussians 
still  speak  fondly  of  u the  old  Fritz,”  or  “ the  great  Fritz,” 
whom  the  world  in  more  stately  phrase  describes  as  u Frederic 
the  Great.” 

His  quaint,  square  face,  with  its  peering  eyes,  his  cocked  hat 
and  long  pig-tail,  his  blue  coat  and  long  vest,  his  leaning  pos- 
ture and  his  crutch-cane,  may  still  be  seen  on  many  a sign- 
board of  the  numerous  hotels  in  the  fatherland,  called  u The 
King  of  Prussia”  ; and  Macaulay  says  that  in  his  day,  portraits 
of  him  were  so  numerous  in  England  that  one  would  find  twenty 
portraits  of  Frederic  for  one  of  George  II. 


1786] 


FREDERIC  THE  GREAT. 


221 


Though  not  great  in  all  respects,  certainly  not  in  the  highest, 
he  was  unquestionably  a great  general,  a great  ruler,  and  a great 
man  in  many  things. 


REFERENCES. 

The  Histories  of  Germany;  for  young  students  acquainted  with 
German,  Duller,  “ History  of  the  German  People,”  vol.  II.  Carlyle, 
“ The  Life  of  Frederic  the  Great  ” ; Macaulay,  “Frederic  the  Great.” 


222 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


1732-1799]  GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 

On  the  high  ground  near  Bridges  Creek,  not  far  from  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Potomac,  on  the  Virginia  side,  a simple  stone 
feb.  22,  records  the  fact  that  the  homestead  which  formerly 
1732  stood  there  was  the  birthplace  of  George  Washington. 

His  father,  Augustine  Washington,  was  married  twice.  By 
his  first  wife  he  had  four  children,  of  whom  only  two,  Law- 
rence and  Augustine,  survived  childhood.  His  second  wife 
was  Mary,  the  daughter  of  colonel  Ball ; four  sons  and  two 
daughters  blessed  that  union.  The  eldest  was  George.  Soon 
after  his  birth  the  family  moved  to  an  estate  in  Stratford 
County,  opposite  Fredericksburg,  and  the  old  homestead  there, 
now  vanished,  was  the  scene  of  his  childhood. 

Lawrence,  the  eldest  half-brother  of  George,  had  been  edu- 
cated in  England,  and  spent  two  years  as  captain  in  the  joint 
expeditions  of  admiral  Vernon  and  general  Wentworth.  The 
April  12,  sudden  death  of  his  father,  and  his  marriage  to  Miss 
1743  Fairfax,  checked  his  military  career,  and  he  settled 
on  the  Potomac  in  a house  which,  in  honor  of  the  admiral, 
he  called  u Mount  Vernon.”  The  education  of  George  in  the 
local  schools  did  not  extend  beyond  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
book-keeping,  and  surveying,  but  it  was  supplemented  by  men- 
tal and  moral  culture  at  home.  His  devout  mother  helped  to 
shape  his  character  by  daily  readings  from  standard  works, 
especially  from  Sir  Matthew  Hale’s  u Contemplations,”  a book 
replete  with  admirable  maxims  for  outward  conduct  and  self- 
government.  Robust  of  frame,  and  fond  of  athletic  exercise, 
he  excelled  most  of  his  playmates  in  contests  of  agility  and 
strength,  and  was  imbued  with  a martial  spirit  by  the  letters 
and  the  military  experience  of  his  brother,  through  whose 


1732-1799.] 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON . 


223 


[l  748 


instrumentality  he  obtained  a commission  of  midshipman.  But 
for  the  strong  opposition  of  his  widowed  mother,  George  would 
have  gone  to  sea. 

At  the  house  of  the  Fairfaxes  he  became  acquainted  with 
lord  Fairfax,  who,  in  consequence  of  a romantic  love  affair  in 
which  he  was  the  sufferer,  had  come  to  look  after  his  immense 
landed  interest,  and  engaged  young  Washington  to  examine, 
survey,  and  map  out  his  vast  estate  in  the  valley  of  the  Shenan- 
doah, the  beautiful  river  whose  name,  in  the  Indian  dialect,  is 
said  to  import  “ the  daughter  of  the  stars.”  Though  only  in 
his  17th  year,  he  did  the  work  so  well  that,  on  his 
return,  he  was  made  a public  surveyor,  an  office 
which  he  held  for  three  years  with  great  credit. 

It  was  an  unfortunate  oversight  in  the  treaty  of  peace  con- 
cluded at  Aix-la-Chapelle  that  the  boundaries  between  the 
British  and  French  possessions  in  North  America  had  not  been 
defined,  the  effect  of  which  was  seen  in  the  race  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  disputed  territory,  and  the  subsequent  outbreak  of 
hostilities  between  the  two  nations,  in  which  the  doomed  red 
man  played  an  important  part. 

Washington,  then  only  19  years  old,  was  appointed  to  a mili- 
tary position  for*  the  purpose  of  organizing  and  equipping  the 
militia  of  his  district.  In  order  to  qualify  himself  for  his  new 
duties,  captain  Muse  taught  him  the  art  of  war  in  theory,  and 
manual  exercise,  while  Jacob  Van  Braam,  a Dutch  soldier  of 
fortune,  instructed  him  in  fencing. 

He  was  called  to  suspend  these  martial  pursuits  in  order  to 
join  his  brother  Lawrence  on  a trip  to  the  West  Indies,  for  the 
benefit  of  his  health,  and  spent  seven  weeks  at  Barbadoes, 
three  of  them  confined  in  bed  with  small-pox,  slight 
marks  of  which  remained  in  his  face  through  life. 

The  case  of  Lawrence  was  beyond  cure,  and  he  just  returned 
to  die  under  his  own  roof,  after  having  appointed 
George  one  of  his  executors,  and,  upon  certain  con- 
tingencies, heir  to  the  estate  of  Mount  Vernon. 


[l  751 


[l  752 


224 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


Governor  Dinwiddie  soon  after  sent  Washington  on  a diplo- 
matic mission  of  remonstrance  to  the  French,  for  their  en- 
croachments on  British  territory,  and  to  the  Indians,  to  secure 
their  good-will  arid  friendship.  It  was  a very  difficult  and 
arduous  undertaking,  full  of  hardships  and  perils,  but  the 
young  military  diplomat  overcame  them  all,  and  though  he 
could  not  stop  the  evil,  acquired  so  much  valuable  knowledge 
of  the  country,  the  Indians,  and  the  numbers  and  purpose  of 
the  French,  that  upon  his  return  the  governor  at  once  took 
measures  for  armed  resistance,  and  made  him  second  in  com- 
mand of  the  troops,  raised  in  Virginia,  for  operations  against 
the  French. 

On  his  first  expedition  Washington  had  indicated  the  spot 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Monongahela  and  Alleghany,  often 
called  the  fork  of  the  Ohio,  as  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
erection  of  a fort,  and  captain  Trent  had  been  despatched 
to  that  point  to  complete  it.  The  French  heard  of  it,  surprised 
his  workmen,  drove  them  away,  and  finished  the  fort,  which 
they  called  Fort  Du  Quesne.  Intelligence  of  this  overt  act 
of  war  reached  Washington  when  at  the  head  of  150  men  he 
emerged  from  the  mountains  ; but  he  took  reprisals  in  the  cap- 
ture of  a detachment  of  French,  whom  he  sent  as  prisoners  to 
governor  Dinwiddie.  Unable  to  take  the  offensive,  he  built 
a fort,  which,  from  the  pinching  want  of  provisions,  he  named 
Fort  Necessity.  While  there  he  decorated  the  Indian  chiefs 
and  warriors  with  medals,  named  two  of  their  number  Fairfax 
and  Dinwiddie,  and  received  in  turn  the  grand  but  unexplained 
Indian  name  of  Connotaucarius.  The  French  unfortunately 
heard  of  his  straits,  and  compelled  him  at  last  to  capitulate 
on  honorable  terms.  On  his  return  he  received  the  thanks  of 
the  Virginia  Assembly. 

Washington  accompanied  Braddock  on  the  disastrous  expedi- 
tion against  Fort  Duquesne  as  aide-de-camp,  and  had  that  brave 
but  infatuated  officer  listened  to  the  judicious  advice  of  the  youth- 
ful American,  his  life  and  the  lives  of  his  command  might  have 


1755-1775.] 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON . 


225 


July  9, 

1755 


been  saved,  and  the  defeat  itself  averted.  The  courage 
and  ability  of  Washington  were  universally  praised  ; 
he  had  four  bullets  through  his  coat,  and  two  horses  were  shot 
under  him.  An  old  Indian  chief  told  Washington  many  years 
afterwards,  that  he  and  his  braves  had  repeatedly  fired  at  him 
during  the  engagement,  but  fired  in  vain,  which  convinced  them 
that  he  bore  a charmed  life. 

Three  years  later  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  entering  with  the 
advanced  guard  Fort  Duquesne,  which  on  the  approach  ^ov.  25, 
of  the  English  army,  the  French  deserted  and  set  on  fire.  1758 

The  reduction  of  that  post  marks  the  close  of  the  early 
military  career  of  Washington,  who  soon  after  married  jan.  6, 

Mrs.  Martha  Custis,  and  settled  on  his  estate  at  1759 

Mount  Vernon.  He  was  a judge  of  the  county  court,  and  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses,  and  took  a prominent  part 
in  the  debates  which  ultimately  resulted  in  the  independence  of 
the  Colonies.  In  the  Convention  at  Williamsburg 
Washington  was  chosen  among  the  delegates  to  the 
First  General  Congress,  and  in  the  Second  General  Con- 
gress, by  the  unanimous  vote  of  that  body,  comman-  [1775 
der-in-chief.  He  rose  in  his  place,  and  after  thanking 
Congress  for  the  high  honor,  added  : u But  lest  some  unlucky 
event  should  happen  unfavorable  to  my  reputation,  I beg  it 
may  be  remembered  by  every  gentleman  in  the  room,  that  I 
this  day  declare  with  the  utmost  sincerity,  I do  not  think 
myself  equal  to  the  command  I am  honored  with.  As  to  pay, 
I beg  leave  to  assure  the  Congress  that,  as  no  pecuniary  con- 
sideration could  have  tempted  me  to  accept  this  arduous  em- 
ployment, at  the  expense  of  my  domestic  ease  and  happiness, 
I do  not  wish  to  make  any  profit  of  it.  I will  keep  an  exact 
account  of  my  expenses.  Those,  I doubt  not,  they  will  dis- 
charge, and  that  is  all  I desire/’ 

The  condition  of  affairs  at  Boston  required  his  immediate 
presence.  Hardly  20  miles  from  Philadelphia  he  met  a courier 
hastening  to  carry  to  Congress  the  tidings  of  the  battle 


[1774 


226 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


of  Bunker’s  Hill.  “ Did  the  militia  stand  fire?”  was 

June  17. 

his  anxious  inquiry,  and  when  told  how  splendidly  they 
had  behaved,  exclaimed,  uThe  liberties  of  the  county  are  safe.” 
July  2 When  he  entered  the  camp  at  Cambridge,  the  shouts 
of  the  people,  and  the  salvos  of  cannon,  announced  to  the 
enemy  the  news  of  his  arrival.  As  he  looked  upon  his  army, 
“a  mixed  multitude  of  people  under  very  little  discipline, 
order,  or  government,”  widely  scattered,  beleaguering  a city^ 
garrisoned  by  veteran  troops,  with  ships  of  war  in  the  harbor, 
he  felt  the  magnitude  of  the  work  before  him,  and  braced  him- 
self to  its  execution  in  the  spirit  of  a Christian  warrior,  re- 
marking, “ that  the  cause  of  his  country  had  called  him  to 
an  active  and  dangerous  duty,  but  he  trusted  that  Divine 
Providence,  which  wisely  orders  the  affairs  of  men,  would 
enable  him  to  discharge  it  with  fidelity  and  success.” 

It  was  a poor  army,  indeed,  without  uniforms,  a military 
chest,  proper  arms,  adequate  shelter,  and  especially  without 
powder.  The  whole  amount  of  powder  would  not  amount  to 
nine  cartridges  to  a man. 

The  organization  of  the  raw  and  undisciplined  troops,  their 
military  training,  and  their  term  of  service,  as  well  as  the 
construction  and  provisioning  of  forts,  in  case  Congress  should 
direct  the  bombardment  of  the  city,  and  for  the  defence  of  the 
American  lines,  engaged  the  attention  of  Washington  and 
consumed  many  weary  and  trying  months.  The  erection  of  a 
battery  on  Dorchester  Heights,  commanding  the  town  and  the 
march  is,  harbor,  compelled  lord  Howe  to  evacuate  the  city, 
1776  and  hastity  embark  his  troops  with  some  1,200  Amer- 
ican loyalists.  They  sailed  to  Halifax,  and  Boston  saw  them 
no  more.  Washington  entered  the  next  day,  and  was  received 
with  great  cordiality.  After  certain  sanitary  precautions,  the 
American  army  marched  into  the  town,  while  Congress  awarded 
to  Washington  a unanimous  vote  of  thanks,  and  ordered  a 
gold  medal  to  be  struck  in  commemoration  of  the  event,  bear- 
ing his  effigy,  as  the  Deliverer  of  Boston. 


1775-1776.] 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


227 


After  the  surprise  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  and 
both  in  view  of  expected  hostilities  from  the  direction  of 
Canada,  as  well  as  from  the  desire  of  securing  the  sympathy 
and  support  of  the  Canadians,  an  expedition  to  that  province 
became  a military  necessity.  Montgomery,  under  orders  from 
Schuyler,  attacked  and  obtained  the  surrender  of  St.  John’s, 
captured  Montreal,  and  sought  to  effect  a junction  Nov.  13, 
with  Arnold,  who  had  accomplished  the  daring  feat  1775 
of  striking  from  Augusta,  on  the  Kennebec,  through  the 
wilderness  into  Canada,  and  making  his  way  to  Point  Levi. 
He  reconnoitred  Quebec,  and  when  on  Dec.  1 the  detachment 
under  Montgomery  came  up,  the  two  commanders  planned  and 
partly  executed  an  assault  upon  that  stronghold.  dec.  3i, 
Montgomery  fell  dead  on  the  spot;  Arnold  was  1775 
wounded,  but  made  his  escape.  The  expedition  ended  in  fail- 
ure, and  the  British  general  Burgoyne  not  only  drove  the 
Americans  out  of  Canada,  but  recovered  Montreal  and  St. 
John’s. 

The  arrival  of  a powerful  British  armament  in  the  Bay  of 
New  York,  numbering  130  men-of-war  and  transports,  spread 
consternation  throughout  the  city  and  along  the  rivers,  and 
indicated  the  coming  storm,  which  Washington,  with  his  inade- 
quate army,  sought  to  avert.  The  most  important  news  which 
the  British  learnt  was  the  announcement  that  the  General 
Congress  at  Philadelphia  had  unanimously  passed  the  “ Declara- 
tion of  Independence,”  which  Washington  had  caused  July  4, 
to  be  read  a few  days  later  at  the  head  of  each  brigade  1776 
of  the  army.  The  joyous  excitement  in  New  York  was  un- 
bounded, and  among  other  tokens  thereof  the  populace  pulled 
down  the  leaden  statue  of  George  III.  in  the  Bowling  Green, 
and  broke  it  up  for  conversion  into  bullets  “ to  be  used  in  the 
cause  of  independence.” 

The  intentions  of  the  enemy’,  who  had  disembarked  on  Staten 
Island,  and  sent  two  ships  up  the  Hudson,  soon  be- 
came manifest.  Lord  Howe,  the  admiral  of  the  fleet, 


July  12. 


228 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


arrived,  and  after  several  weeks  of  preparations,  the 
British  effected  a landing  on  Long  Island,  encountered 
and  defeated  the  Americans.  They  would  have  been  lost  had 
the  enemy  followed  up  his  advantage  ; as  it  was,  the  sagacity  of 
Washington  accomplished  their  deliverance,  in  the  masterly 
retreat  of  9,000  men  with  all  the  munitions  of  war,  from  the 
presence  of  a victorious  foe,  across  a strait  three-quarters  of 
a mile  wide,  without  discovery  or  loss. 

The  retreat  from  Long  Island  was  the  precursor  of  similar 
movements,  indispensable  to  the  preservation  of  the  American 
army,  which,  from  various  causes,  was  kept  in  a state  of  de- 
plorable destitution  and  inefficiency.  Yet  such  was  the  military 
genius  of  Washington,  that  with  a mere  handful  of  half-starved 
and  ill-clad  troops,  he  defeated  the  enemy  in  the  brilliant  affairs 
at  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and  placed  the  Delaware  between 
himself  and  the  British.  His  tactics  recalled  those  of  the 
famous  Roman  general,  who  watched  and  lured  the  great  Han- 
nibal, and  earned  for  him  the  title  of  the  “ American  Fabius.” 

In  the  ensuing  year  was  fought  the  battle  of  the  Brandywine, 
Sept,  n,  in  which  the  British  remained  masters  of  the  field,  and 
1777  secured  the  possession  of  Philadelphia.  The  defeat 
was  not  very  alarming,  for  Washington,  a few  days  after,  at- 
tacked the  enemy  at  Germantown,  and  would  have  been  suc- 
cessful but  for  an  unexplained  panic.  The  British,  as  usual, 
failed  to  make  good  their  advantage,  and  Washington  went  into 
winter-quarters  at  Valley  Forge.  The  only  decisive  success 
over  the  enemy  had  been  achieved  in  the  North  by  general 
Gates,  who  defeated  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga,  and  compelled  him 
to  surrender  ; but  it  was  of  no  benefit  to  Washington,  for  Gates, 
thinking  only  of  his  own  aggrandizement,  failed  to  strengthen 
his  hands  by  the  troops,  the  bulk  of  whom  he  did  not  need. 

That  winter  at  Valley  Forge  marks  the  gloomiest  period  in 
the  history  of  the  war.  The  sufferings  of  the  men  were  dread- 
ful ; they  suffered  from  hunger  and  cold ; their  miserable  huts 
afforded  but  poor  protection  from  the  inclement  weather,  while 


1777-1778.] 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


229 


their  scant  clothing,  want  of  bread  and  meat,  and  sickness, 
aggravated  the  misery  of  the  men,  to  which,  in  the  case  of  Wash- 
ington, must  be  added  the  galling  annoyance  of  jealous  interfer- 
ence on  the  part  of  Congress,  and  of  remonstrance  on  the  part 
of  the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  against  his  going  into  win- 
ter-quarters ; he  had  at  that  time  “ 2,898  men  unfit  for  duty, 
because  they  are  barefoot,  and  otherwise  naked,”  and  his 
entire  strength  mustered  only  u 8,200  men  fit  for  duty  ”;  and 
their  numbers  were  fast  decreasing,  because  from  want  of  blankets 
the  men  had  to  sit  up  all  night  by  fires,  instead  of  sleeping  in 
their  beds.  u I can  assure  those  gentlemen,”  he  writes,  “ that 
it  is  a much  easier  and  less  distressing  thing  to  draw  remon- 
strances in  a comfortable  room,  by  a good  fireside,  than  to 
occupy  a cold,  bleak  hill,  and  sleep  under  frost  and  snow  with- 
out clothes  or  blankets.  However,  although  they  seem  to  have 
little  feeling  for  the  naked  and  distressed  soldiers,  I feel  abun- 
dantly for  them,  and,  from  my  soul,  I pity  those  miseries, 
which  it  is  neither  in  my  power  to  relieve  nor  prevent.” 

Most  opportune  and  valuable  was  the  advent  of  the  baron 
Steuben,  an  able  and  experienced  soldier,  who  had  served  in  the 
Seven  Years’  War,  been  an  aide-de-camp  to  Frederic  the  Great, 
and  was  a splendid  disciplinarian.  Washington  appointed  him 
inspector-general,  and  his  great  efficiency  soon  told  on  the  army, 
which,  under  his  faithful  and  vigilant  instructions,  began  speedily 
to  operate  like  a well-regulated  body.  His  English  was  rather 
poor,  but  he  gave  it  emphasis  by  a liberal  admixture  of  poly- 
glot profanity.  His  stories  of  the  trials  of  Frederic,  of  his 
fortitude  and  perseverance,  especially  of  the  gloomy  days  of 
Bunzelwitz,  must  have  cheered  Washington,  whose  faith  was 
as  simple  and  childlike  as  Ziethen’s. 

The  horizon  cleared  somewhat  when  in  May  came  the  glad 
tidings  that  two  treaties,  one  of  amity  and  commerce,  may  2, 
another  of  defensive  alliance,  had  been  signed  be-  1778 

tween  France  and  the  United  States.  The  army  at  Valley  Forge, 
decently  uniformed,  tolerably  well  fed,  and  also  well  drilled, 


230 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


had  a grand  holiday  on  the  occasion  of  the  announcement  of 
that  important  news,  and  joyfully  shouted,  4 ‘•Long  live  the 
king  of  France  ! Long  live  the  friendly  European  Powers  ! 
Huzza  for  the  American  States.”  But  they  shouted  yet  more 
lustily,  44  Long  live  general  Washington  ! ” 

It  was  good  news,  for  it  imported  not  only  that  France  had 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  United  States,  but  sent 
a fleet  to  help  them  in  the  struggle.  The  immediate  result  was 
an  order  to  Clinton,  who  had  succeeded  Howe  in  command  at 
Philadelphia,  to  concentrate  his  forces  at  New  York.  His 
departure  from  the  former  city  had  been  accomplished  with 
secrecy  and  despatch,  but  Washington  followed  the  British 
across  New  Jersey,  and  came  up  with  theni  at  Monmouth.  Lee, 
who  had  been  ordered  to  attack  the  rear  of  the  enemy,  disobeyed 
the  general,  and  ordered  a retreat,  which  was  fortunately  checked 
by  Washington.  The  day  was  spent  in  manoeuvring 

June  28. 

for  good  positions  and  desultory  fighting,  and  at  its 
close  the  Americans,  who  had  the  best  of  it,  were  ordered  to  lie 
on  their  arms,  ready  for  action  in  the  morning.  At  sunrise  it 
was  found  that  Clinton  and  his  army  had  left,  and  having  trav- 
elled all  night,  had  advanced  too  far  to  be  overtaken  in  the 
extreme  heat  by  the  Americans,  already  worn  out  with  fatigue ; 
so  the  pursuit  was  abandoned,  and  Washington  established  his 
headquarters  at  Paramus. 

After  the  arrival  of  the  French  fleet,  under  count  D’Estaing, 
a plan  for  a combined  attack  on  Newport  was  formed, 

July  29.  r 1 

attempted,  but  not  executed.  Howe  came  up  with  the 
English  fleet,  D’Estaing  went  out  to  meet  him ; the  hostile  fleets 
manoeuvred  for  the  weather-gauge,  but  were  so  badly  shattered 
in  a storm  that  they  did  not  fight.  Howe  went  back  to  New 
York,  and  the  count  sailed  for  repairs  to  Boston.  The  land  force 
under  general  Sullivan,  deprived  of  the  expected  co-operation, 
made  good  its  retreat,  fortunately  in  time  to  escape  Clinton,  who, 
the  very  next  day  arrived  in  a light  squadron  with  a large  rein- 
forcement. The  failure  of  the  combined  enterprise  caused  uni- 


1778] 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


231 


versal  chagrin,  and  in  the  words  of  Washington,  “ blasted  in 
one  moment  the  fairest  hopes  that  ever  were  conceived.” 

The  British  now  transferred  the  war  to  the  South,  captured 
Savannah  and  Augusta,  overran  Georgia,  marched  upon  Charles- 
ton, but  were  compelled  by  the  American  general,  Lincoln,  to 
fall  back  upon  Savannah.  They  also  sent  a marauding  expe- 
dition into  Virginia,  took  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth,  seized  or 
destroyed  many  vessels,  and  inflicted  by  their  ravages  a loss  of 
more  than  $2,000,000.  Another  expedition  of  the  same  char- 
acter sailed  up  Long  Island  Sound,  took  New  Haven,  burnt 
Fairfield  and  Norwalk,  destroyed  all  the  public  stores  and  the 
shipping,  but  was  prevented  from  meting  out  the  same  fate  to 
New  London  by  the  movements  of  Washington  in  the  High- 
lands. 

Clinton  had  possessed  himself  of  the  forts  at  Stony  Point 
and  Verplanck’s  Point,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  High- 
lands of  the  Hudson.  The  former  had  been  greatly  strength- 
ened by  the  British,  and  Washington,  who  had  conceived  the 
idea  of  wresting  it  from  them,  entrusted  the  execution  of  his 
plan  to  the  intrepid  Wayne,  who,  from  his  daring  valor,  is 
known  as  “ Mad  Anthony.’ ’ The  fort  crowned  a promontoiy 
extending  far  into  the  river,  which  washed  it  on  three  sides.  A 
deep  morass,  under  water  at  flood-tide,  but  provided  with  a 
causeway  and  bridge,  passable  at  low  water,  was  the  only 
approach  to  it  from  the  land  side.  The  cannon  of  the  fort 
commanded  that  approach,  two  rows  of  abatis  interposed  be- 
tween the  base  and  the  summit,  and  the  vessels  in  the  river 
controlled  the  shore.  The  precautions  had  been  well  taken, 
even  to  the  silencing  of  the  tell-tale  barks  of  the  dogs.  A 
negro,  who  knew  the  countersign,  and  had  often  been  in  the 
fort,  guided  the  Americans.  Two  soldiers,  disguised  as 
farmers,  accompanied  him,  and  while  he  was  chatting  with  the 
first  sentinel,  the  farmers  seized  and  gagged  him.  The  second 
sentinel  met  the  same  treatment.  The  causeway  being  flooded, 
the  detachment  could  not  cross  until  some  time  after  midnight, 


232 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D 


while  general  Muhlenberg,  with  300  men,  guarded  the  western 
side  of  the  morass. 

The  troops  formed  in  two  divisions,  preceded  by  forlorn 
hopes,  charged  with  the  perilous  duty  of  removing  the  abatis, 
and  made  the  ascent  on  opposite  sides.  They  had  nearly 
reached  the  outworks  before  the}7  were  discovered ; fighting 
ensued ; the  Americans,  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  pushed 
forward,  and,  heedless  of  the  fire  of  grape-shot  and  musketry, 
bounded  into  the  fort  from  opposite  sides,  struck  the  British 
flag,  and  forced  the  garrison  to  surrender  at  discretion.  Wayne 
was  wounded,  but  carried  into  the  fort.  The  Ameri- 

JULY  15. 

can  loss  was  15  killed  and  83  wounded ; 63  of  the 
British  garrison  were  killed ; the  remainder,  553,  were  taken 
prisoners.  The  capture  of  Stony  Point  is  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  exploits  of  the  war,  but  in  nothing  more  than  the 
noble  humanity  of  the  brave  conquerors,  “ who  scorned  to  take 
the  lives  of  a vanquished  foe  when  calling  for  mercy.” 

A similar  exploit  was  the  dashing  surprise  of  the  fortified 
point  of  Paulus  Hook  by  the  gallant  Harry  Lee,  and  the  cap- 
ture of  part  of  its  garrison,  u within  cannon-shot  of  New 
York.”  In  the  autumn  of  this  year  the  French  admiral 
D’Estaing,  and  general  Lincoln  made  a combined  but  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  recover  Savannah,  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  for- 
mer from  the  scene  of  war  induced  Clinton  to  embark  with  an 
army  of  7,000  men  on  an  expedition  intended  for  the  capture  of 
Charleston,  and  the  reduction  of  South  Carolina. 

With  means  utterly  inadequate  to  the  magnitude  of  his  work, 
an  army,  weak  in  numbers,  and  they  “ almost  perishing  with 
want,”  the  perplexities  of  the  American  commander-in-chief 
were  appalling.  He  held  his  own  in  the  North,  and  watched 
with  deep  solicitude  the  events  in  the  South  to  which  he  had 
despatched  De  Kalb  with  all  the  troops  he  could  spare,  his  entire 
command  being  at  that  time  numerically  inferior  to  the  British 
garrison  in  New  York. 

Lincoln,  after  sustaining  a siege  of  forty-two  days  and  a fear- 


1778-1780.] 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


233 


ful  bombardment,  had  to  surrender  Charleston  ; Clinton  sent 
out  three  marauding  expeditions,  one  towards  Augusta,  another 
in  the  direction  of  Camden,  and  a third  under  Tarleton  in  pur- 
suit of  Buford,  who  after  the  fall  of  Charleston  had  begun  a 
rapid  retreat  with  his  Virginians.  Tarleton  overtook  him,  and 
by  his  ruthless  massacre  of  113  Americans,  who  had  cried  for 
mercy,  earned  unenviable  notoriety  perpetuated  in  the  phrase  of 
“ Tarleton’s  quarter.”  After  thus  pacifying  South  Carolina, 
Clinton  left  lord  Cornwallis  with  4,000  men  in  command,  and 
with  the  remainder  of  his  troops  returned  to  New  York. 

The  American  forces,  now  placed  under  the  command  of 
Gates,  met  the  British  under  Cornwallis  near  Camden,  aug.  16, 
and  were  defeated.  Poor  Gates  retreated  to  Salisbury  1780 
and  Hillsboro’,  and  tried  to  raise  another  army,  but  lost  his 
command,  musing  in  his  fallen  greatness  on  the  fickleness  of 
fortune,  and  doubtless  recalling  the  almost  prophetic  parting 
words  of  Lee,  u Beware  your  Northern  laurels  do  not  turn  to 
Southern  willows.” 

The  progress  of  the  victorious  Cornwallis  into  North  Caro- 
lina was  checked  by  the  spirited  affair  of  King’s  Moun-  ^ 

tain,  in  which  a large  body  of  republicans  from 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee  annihilated  the  command  of  major 
Ferguson. 

Early  in  the  same  year  Lafayette  had  returned  from  France 
with  the  good  news  of  promised  succors  from  that  country,  and 
though  the  fleet  with  troops  arrived  at  Newport,  no  combined 
action  could  be  concerted.  The  discovery  of  Arnold’s  treachery 
to  betray  West  Point  into  the  hands  of  Clinton  was  a 

J Oct.  2. 

terrible  blow  to  Washington,  but  the  fate  of  Andre, 

who  stood  convicted  as  a spy,  though  sad,  could  not  be  averted. 

General  Greene  who  succeeded  Gates  in  the  command  at  the 
South,  had  an  army  of  about  2,000  ill-clad  and  ill-fed  men  to 
oppose  to  at  least  double  that  number  of  well-favored  redcoats. 
Part  of  the  troops,  the  Americans,  Continentals,  and  militia, 
under  Morgan,  and  the  British  under  Tarleton,  met  at  a place 


234 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


called  “The  Cowpens.”  Morgan,  who  was  a splendid  tactician, 
allowed  himself  to  be  attacked,  and  when  the  militia  gave  way, 
ordered  a change  of  front,  which  Tarleton  mistook  for  a retreat, 
Jan.  17,  and  dashed  after  them  in  pursuit.  The  Americans 
1781  coolly  faced  about,  delivered  at  close  range  a murder- 
ous fire  into  the  ranks  of  the  British,  and  attacked  them  with 
the  bayonet.  They  fled  in  wild  confusion,  and  though  Tarleton 
tried  by  turning  on  colonel  Washington’s  horse,  to  rally  his 
men,  he  could  not  stay  the  rout,  was  wounded  by  the  colonel, 
and  fled  to  Cornwallis.  He  lost  800  men  in  killed  and  wounded, 
as  well  as  all  his  cannon  and  baggage.  The  story  runs  that  some 
time  later  Tarleton,  conversing  with  an  American  lady,  referred 
scornfully  to  the  colonel  as  an  illiterate  man  who  could  not  write 
his  name,  and  drew  from  his  fair  companion  the  sharp  reply, 
“ Ah,  colonel,  but  you  bear  evidence  that  he  can  make  his  mark.” 

Cornwallis  immediately  broke  up  to  pursue  Morgan,  but 
arrived  just  in  time  to  see  him  safe  across  the  Catawba ; dark- 
ness stayed  his  progress,  and  during  the  night  it  rained.  Greene 
joined  Morgan,  conducted  the  retreat,  and  passed  the  Yadkin 
before  the  English  could  overtake  him ; it  rained  again,  and 
Cornwallis  had  to  pause  in  the  pursuit.  The  Americans  pushed 
forward  to  Guildford  Court  House,  where  they  joined  the  main 
army,  which  was  advancing  under  Huger.  Then  the  opposing 
armies  chased  each  other  in  marches  and  countermarches,  the 
Americans  to  gain  time  and  expected  succors,  the  English  to  pre- 
vent both.  At  last  they  met  in  battle  at  Guildford  Court  House. 
There  was  much  hard  fighting,  yet  though  the  redcoats  won 
the  day,  they  were  as  much  crippled  as  the  Americans. 
Cornwallis,  with  Greene’s  men  molesting  his  flanks,  re- 
treated to  Wilmington,  and  leaving  Greene  to  pursue  his  way 
to  South  Carolina,  moved  into  Virginia,  where  the  traitor 
Arnold  was  doing  much  mischief. 

Washington  sent  Lafayette  to  co-operate  with  Steuben,  but 
their  forces  were  too  weak  to  catch  Arnold  (who,  fortunately 
for  himself,  received  orders  to  return  to  New  York),  or  to  arrest 


1781.] 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


235 


the  progress  of  Cornwallis,  who  had  effected  a junction  with 
Phillips,  and  reinforced  by  four  regiments,  proceeded  to  York- 
town,  where  he  fortified  himself,  and  awaited  the  arrival  of  an 
expected  British  fleet. 

Washington  now,  by  a feint  upon  New  York,  prevented  Clin- 
ton from  despatching  more  troops  to  Virginia,  and  concerted 
measures  with  Rochambeau  for  the  capture  of  Cornwallis. 
Neither  Clinton  nor  Cornwallis  had  the  faintest  suspicion  of 
the  formidable  machinery  that  had  been  set  in  motion,  and  was 
silently,  rapidly,  and  effectually  converging  upon  its  destination. 
The  united  American  and  French  troops  were  directed  to  York- 
town  ; and  when  De  Grasse,  with  his  powerful  fleet,  arrived  on 
the  scene,  a plan  of  operations  was  agreed  upon,  in  virtue  of 
which  the  armies  surrounded  Cornwallis  by  land,  and  24  ships 
of  the  line  prevented  ingress  or  egress  by  sea. 

By  this  time  Clinton,  apprized  of  what  was  going  on,  strained 
every  nerve  to  send  ships  and  men  to  Cornwallis,  whose  position 
was  desperate.  He  was  held  in  a vise,  for  Washington  and 
Rochambeau  assailed  him  from  the  north,  while  the  ships  com- 
manded the  river  and  the  sea  on  all  other  points. 

The  allied  armies  threw  up  their  works,  and  began  to  bom- 
bard the  town : two  days  later,  they  opened  a second  parallel, 
and  took  two  British  redoubts  ; then  Cornwallis  made  a last 
desperate  attempt  at  escape  by  crossing  to  Gloucester,  but  a 
storm  scattered  his  boats.  There  was  now  nothing  left  to  him 
but  to  surrender.  Washington  rejected  a proposed  armistice  of 
24  hours,  but  granted  one  of  two  ; the  terms  of  capitulation 
were  then  arranged,  according  to  which  Cornwallis,  on  the  19th 
of  October,  surrendered  his  sword  to  general  Lincoln  ; more 
than  7,000  British  soldiers  laid  down  their  arms,  and  became 
prisoners  of  war.  The  joy  in  the  united  camps  was  unbounded, 
and  Washington  ordered  a divine  service,  bidding  the  army 
unite  in  it  u with  that  seriousness  of  deportment  and  gratitude 
of  heart,  which  the  recognition  of  such  reiterated  and  astonish- 
ing interpositions  of  Providence  demand  of  us.” 


236 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


The  glad  tidings  spread  with  amazing  rapidity  over  the 
country,  roused  the  grateful  joy  of  every  patriotic  heart,  and 
quickened  not  only  the  hope,  but  the  resolution  to  persevere  in 
the  good  cause  with  increasing  courage  and  earnestness. 

Washington’s  first  measure  was  to  send  2,000  men  to  Greene, 
his  second,  to  order  the  army  back  into  winter  quarters,  his 
third,  to  fight  battles  for  that  army  with  Congress. 

The  success  at  Yorktown,  though  the  first  step  in  the  direction 
of  peace,  was  not  peace.  The  enemy  held  Charleston  and 
Savannah  in  the  South,  and  New  York  in  the  North ; hostilities 
might  be  resumed  at  any  moment ; British  fleets  swept  the  seas, 
American  commerce  was  destroyed,  American  credit  gone,  and 
the  army,  unpaid  and  unprovided  for,  clamored  for  a change, 
and  wanted  to  make  Washington  a king.  He  spurned  the  idea, 
and  stood  at  the  helm.  While  the  question  of  war  or  peace  was 
discussed  abroad,  he  did  not  relax  his  vigilance  on  Tarleton,  the 
successor  of  Clinton,  at  New  York,  and  acted  the  part  of  a suc- 
cessful mediator  between  the  army  and  Congress. 

Sept.  3,  The  welcome  news  of  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded 
1783  at  Paris,  which  accorded  to  “ The  United  States  of 
America  ” an  honorable  place  in  the  family  of  nations,  prompted 
Washington  to  apply  to  Congress  for  instructions  as  to  dis- 
banding the  army,  and  to  publish  the  event  in  every  camp, 
with  orders  “ that  the  chaplains  with  the  several  brigades  will 
render  thanks  to  Almighty  God  for  all  his  mercies.”  The  army 
Nov.  25.  was  formally  disbanded,  and  after  the  evacuation  of 
New  York,  Washington  affectionately  took  leave  of  his 
Dec.  23.  officers,  proceeded  to  Annapolis,  resigned  his  commis- 
sion to  Congress,  and  retired  u from  the  great  theatre  of  public 
action  ” to  the  privacy  of  his  own  home  at  Mount  Yernon,  where 
he  rested,  in  his  own  words,  u under  the  shadow  of  his  own  vine 
and  his  own  fig-tree,  free  from  the  bustle  of  a camp,  and  the 
busy  scenes  of  public  life.”  In  the  same  letter  to  Lafayette  he 
said:  u Envious  of  none,  I am  determined  to  be  pleased  with 
all ; and  this,  my  dear  friend,  being  the  order  of  my  march,  I 


1783-1797] 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


237 


will  move  gently  down  the  stream  of  life  until  I sleep  with  my 
fathers.” 

From  Mount  Vernon  he  visited  his  lands  in  Western  Virginia 
and  planned  canals  connecting  the  waters  of  the  Potomac  and 
James  with  those  of  the  Ohio ; he  was  made  president  of  the 
companies  formed  for  the  purpose,  but  applied  the  shares  which 
were  voted  to  him  to  the  endowment  of  schools. 

The  unsatisfactory  working  of  the  old  Articles  of  Confederation 
not  only  impeded  the  work  of  the  government,  but  made  it  almost 
powerless.  Each  State  claimed  absolute  power  to  manage  its  own 
affairs,  and  all  the  States  were  not  only  jealous  of  one  another, 
but  of  a federal  government.  u We  are  one  nation  to-day,  and 
thirteen  to-morrow,”  said  Washington;  u who  will  treat  with  us 
on  those  terms?”  These  serious  and  dangerous  inconveniences 
were  discussed  at  great  length  in  a Convention  of  Delegates  at 
Philadelphia,  under  the  presidency  of  Washington,  which  framed 
and  adopted  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  gEPT.  17> 
That  instrument  (with  several  amendments)  is  still  in  1787 
force,  and  under  it,  Washington  was  unanimously  chosen  the 
first  president  of  the  United  States. 

He  accepted  the  trust,  and  his  journey  to  New  York,  the 
temporary  capital  of  the  United  States,  was  an  uninterrupted 
triumphal  procession.  His  formal  inauguration  took  April  30, 
place  in  the  presence  of  an  immense  multitude  on  the  1789 
balcony  of  the  Senate  Chamber,  which  occupied  the  site  of  the 
present  sub-treasury  at  the  corner  of  Nassau  and  Wall  Streets. 
Chancellor  Livingston  administered  the  oath  of  office,  and 
Washington,  profoundly  moved,  kissed  the  Bible,  and  said,  u I 
swear,  so  help  me  God.”  The  chancellor  gave  three  cheers, 
and  loud  rang  the  cry,  u Long  live  George  Washington,  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.”  Then  the  flag  went  up,  cannon 
roared,  and  all  the  church  bells  were  set  ringing,  as  so  many 
tokens  of  the  universal  joy. 

Washington  served  two  terms,  only  because  his  r 

° J 1 739—1 797 

high  sense  of  duty  prompted  him  to  respect  the  L 


238 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


1794] 


wish  of  the  people,  not  because  he  coveted  the  office  or  its 
continuance.  “ I shall  assume  the  task,”  he  wrote,  u with  the 
most  unfeigned  reluctance  and  real  diffidence,  for  which  I shall 
probably  receive  no  credit  from  the  world.” 

It  was  a herculean  task,  but  lie  performed  it  better  than  an}- 
one  else  could  have  done  at  the  time.  The  government  had  no 
money  and  no  credit,  but  an  enormous  debt ; under  his  admin- 
istration a revenue  was  provided,  the  national  credit  established, 
and  the  payment  of  the  debt  arranged  ; the  Whiskey  Rebellion 
was  put  down  ; the  Indian  troubles  in  the  North-west  were  com- 
posed by  “ Mad  Anthony,”  who  told  the  Indians  that  if 
they  dared  to  break  the  treaty  of  peace,  he  would  return 
from  the  grave  and  fight  them.  Abroad  Washington  caused  the 
country  to  be  respected ; treaties  were  concluded  with  Great 
Britain,  Spain,  and  the  Barbary  States,  of  vast  benefit  to  the 
nascent  commerce  of  the  country,  and  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  her  resources.  Refusing  a third  election,  he  issued 
his  Farewell  Address  and  retired  to  Mount  Vernon. 

Once  more,  upon  the  occasion  of  expected  hostilities  with 
France,  Washington  reappeared  in  public  life  as  lieutenant- 
general  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army,  and 
soon  after,  in  consequence  of  a severe  cold  caught  by  exposure, 
dec.  14,  died  after  a brief  illness.  His  last  words  were,  “ I die 
1 799  hard,  but  I am  not  afraid  to  go”  ; and  a little  later: 
4 4 1 feel  myself  going.  I thank  you  for  your  attentions  ; but  I 
pray  you  to  take  no  more  trouble  about  me.  Let  me  go 
quietly  ; I cannot  last  long.”  The  loved  home  of  his  life  on  the 
bank  of  the  Potomac  is  also  his  last  haven  of  rest ; his  body  was 
laid  in  the  family  tomb  at  Mount  Vernon. 

The  purity,  the  virtue,  the  unselfishness,  and  above  all 
things,  the  lofty  patriotism  of  George  Washington,  who  shone  in 
every  station  and  relation  of  life,  and  though  childless,  was 
truly  the  Father  of  his  Country,  places  him  on  a higher  pedestal 
of  glory  than  that  occupied  by  mighty  potentates  and  conquer- 
ors, to  whose  names  posterity  has  added  the  epithet  “ Great.” 


1732-1799.] 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 


239 


The  Deliverer  and  Founder  of  this  mighty  nation,  has  in  that 
nation  the  proudest  monument  that  ever  was  erected  to  the 
memory  of  a man.  A famous  writer  has  said  of  him,  “ Until 
time  shall  be  no  more,  a test  of  the  progress  which  our  race  has 
made  in  wisdom  and  virtue  will  be  derived  from  the  veneration 
paid  to  the  immortal  name  of  Washington.” 

The  memory  of  his  life  and  work  cannot  be  effaced  or  even 
dimmed,  and  remote  posterity  will  bless  his  name  as  that  of  one 
who  in  the  opinion  of  Americans,  and  in  that  of  all  lovers  of 
goodness  and  virtue,  was  “ first  in  peace,  first  in  war,  and  first 
in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen.” 


REFERENCES. 

The  Histories  of  the  United  States.  Sparks,  “Life  and  Writings 
of  Washington ”;  Marshall,  “Life  of  Washington”;  Washington 
Irving,  “Life  of  Washington”;  Habberton,  “George  Washington.” 


240 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


/ 


1706-1790]  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 


A tombstone  in  the  Old  Granary  Burial  Ground  in  Boston 
bears  the  inscription : — 

JOSIAH  FRANKLIN  AND  ABIAH  HIS  WIFE 

LIE  HERE  INTERRED. 

THEY  LIVED  LOVINGLY  TOGETHER  IN  WEDLOCK  FIFTY-FIVE  YEARS; 

AND  WITHOUT  AN  ESTATE  OR  ANY  GAINFUL  EMPLOYMENT, 

BY  CONSTANT  LABOR  AND  HONEST  INDUSTRY, 

(WITH  GOD’S  BLESSING,) 

MAINTAINED  A LARGE  FAMILY  COMFORTABLY; 

AND  BROUGHT  UP  THIRTEEN  CHILDREN  AND  SEVEN  GRAND- 
CHILDREN REPUTABLY. 

FROM  THIS  INSTANCE,  READER, 

BE  ENCOURAGED  TO  DILIGENCE  IN  THY  CALLING, 

AND  DISTRUST  NOT  PROVIDENCE. 

HE  WAS  A PIOUS  AND  PRUDENT  MAN, 

SHE  A DISCREET  AND  VIRTUOUS  WOMAN. 

THEIR  YOUNGEST  SON, 

IN  FILIAL  REGARD  TO  THEIR  MEMORY, 

PLACES  THIS  STONE. 

J.  F.  BORN  1655  — DIED  1744,—  /E.  89. 

A.  F.  BORN  1667  — DIED  1752,  — /E.  85. 

The  ancient  worthies  commemorated  on  that  stone  were  the 
parents  of  the  illustrious  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  next  to  and 
jointly  with  George  Washington,  ranks  in  American  history  as 
one  of  the  principal  founders  of  the  Republic. 

The  fifteenth  child  of  his  father,  the  eighth  child  by  his 
Jan.  17,  second  wife,  Benjamin,  who  had  yet  two  sisters 
1706  younger  than  himself,  was  born  in  Boston.  His 
father  was  a tallow-chandler,  and  Benjamin  at  the  tender  age 
of  ten  was  taken  from  school  and  set  to  work  in  cutting  wicks 


1706-1790.] 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN . 


241 


for  the  candles,  filling  the  moulds,  attending  to  the  shop,  and 
going  errands.  It  was  not  pleasant  work,  and  he  longed  to  go 
to  sea,  but  as  his  father  did  not  favor  the  project,  he  was 
apprenticed  to  an  older  brother,  who  was  a printer.  This 
pleased  him  more,  especially  as  it  afforded  opportunity  to 
gratify  his  fondness  for  reading.  He  learned  and  became 
soon  an  expert  at  his  trade  ; but  as  he  could  not  agree  with  his 
brother,  concluded  to  better  his  condition  by  seeking  employ- 
ment elsewhere.  So  he  went  to  New  York,  and  unable  to  get 
work  there,  made  his  way  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  landed 
with  a silver  dollar  and  a shilling  in  coppers  in  his  pocket. 
Walking  up  Market  Street,  he  bought  three  huge  rolls,  and 
carrying  one  under  each  arm  while  despatching  the  third, 
passed  the  house  of  Mr.  Read,  whose  blooming  daughter 
Deborah,  destined  to  be  his  wife,  stood  at  the  door,  and 
scanned  the  comely,  hungry,  but  ungainly  youth.  Although 
printing  was  yet  in  its  infanc}^,  by  dint  of  application  he  found 
employment  as  a journeyman  printer,  and  lodgings  at  the  house 
of  the  father  of  the  aforesaid  Deborah. 

It  so  happened  that  he  became  acquainted  with  sir  William 
Keith,  the  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  who  took  a fancy  to  him 
and  urged  him  to  set  up  as  printer  on  his  own  account.  Armed 
with  a letter  from  the  governor  he  returned  to  Boston  for  his 
father’s  consent,  but  as  Benjamin  was  only  18  years  old, 
Josiah  Franklin  advised  him  to  wait  until  he  was  21,  promis- 
ing if  by  that  time  he  had  saved  mone}r  enough  to  set  himself 
up  in  business,  he  would  help  with  the  rest.  But  the  governor, 
upon  his  return  to  Philadelphia,  encouraged  his  scheme,  prom- 
ised to  advance  him  the  amount  required,  and  urged  him  to  go 
to  London  to  buy  type,  where  furnished  with  his  letter  of 
credit  and  letters  of  introduction  to  his  friends,  he  could  not 
fail  to  make  satisfactory  arrangements  for  the  future. 

Although  the  governor’s  promises  were  cruel  deceptions, 
Benjamin,  rich  in  hopes  and  the  plighted  affection  of  Deborah 
Read,  sailed  to  London  and  spent  there  some  eighteen  months, 


242 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


during  which  he  gathered  much  valuable  experience  in  the  m}Ts- 
teries  of  the  printer’s  craft,  and  as  valuable  knowledge  of 
books,  men,  and  the  world. 

In  London  he  looked  into  other  eyes,  and  that  circumstance, 
as  well  as  the  uncertainty  of  his  affairs,  induced  him  to  inform 
Miss  Read  that  he  might  not  return  for  a long  while.  It  so 
fared,  however,  that  Mr.  Denham,  a fellow-passenger  from 
Philadelphia,  upon  his  return  to  that  city,  offered  Benjamin  a 
clerkship  in  a store  he  was  about  to  open  there,  and  he,  feeling 
that  the  cords  of  love  drew  him  away  from  England,  in  due 
course  landed  in  the  City  of  Brotherly  Love,  but  found  that  in 
consequence  of  his  fickleness,  the  blooming  Deborah  had  mar- 
ried “one  Rogers,  a potter.”  That  potter  was  a scamp  ; rumor 
said  that  he  had  another  wife  ; a year  later  he  fled  from  his 
creditors  ; and  another  rumor  of  his  death  was  followed,  four 
Sept.  1,  years  after  Benjamin’s  return  from  England,  by  the 
1730  marriage  of  Benjamin  and  Deborah. 

Meanwhile  he  and  Meredith  had  set  up  a printing-press  and 
begun  the  publication  of  the  “Pennsylvania  Gazette,”  which 
Franklin  edited.  His  business  began  to  prosper,  and  its  head, 
life,  and  soul,  Franklin,  followed  it  so  industriously  that 
after  twenty  years  devoted  to  its  growth  and  development  he 
was  enabled  to  retire  with  a competency.  Never  before  had 
there  been  such  a strange  business  in  the  Quaker  City  as  that 
followed  by  the  bright  English  Yankee  from  Boston,  who  com- 
bined the  material,  the  intellectual,  the  moral,  and  even  the 
spirituous  in  its  several  departments.  He  manufactured  lamp- 
black and  ink,  bought  and  sold  rags,  cut  type  and  illustrative 
matter,  wrote,  edited,  printed,  and  sold  his  newspaper,  im- 
ported, printed,  bound,  and  sold  books,  edited  and  published 
the  famous  serio-comic  almanac,  “ Poor  Richard,”  whose  popu- 
larity in  the  Colonies  and  in  Europe  was  unexampled.  Nor 
was  this  all : in  that  newspaper  office  might  be  had  not  only  the 
sundries  already  enumerated,  but  whatever  related  to  stationery, 
and  much  that  belonged  to  domestic  economy,  such  as  soap  and 


1730.] 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 


243 


live-geese  feathers,  coffee,  and  even  44  sack.”  The  pounds  in- 
creased and  multiplied,  and  when  he  retired  from  business  he 
had  an  income  of  £700  a year,  and  sold  the  good-will  to  Hall, 
his  foreman,  for  £18,000,  payable  in  eighteen  annual  instal- 
ments of  £1,000. 

These  results  were  the  reward  of  his  industry,  honesty,  and 
strong  good  sense  ; there  was  in  those  days  in  Philadelphia  and 
the  province  of  Pennsylvania  not  a man  so  deservedly  popular 
as  the  honest,  industrious,  jovial,  generous,  public-spirited, 
learned,  and  wise  Benjamin  Franklin.  At  the  age  of  ten  he 
had  left  school,  but  his  insatiable  thirst  for  knowledge  and  the 
energy  with  which  he  entered  upon  the  pursuit  of  it,  without 
any  other  guidance  than  that  of  his  own  good  sense,  made  him 
a very  learned  and  accomplished  man,  who  could  read  French, 
Italian,  Spanish,  and  Latin,  was  well  versed  in  history,  mathe- 
matics, philosophy,  political  economy,  and  the  sciences  ; a de- 
lightful companion  to  converse  with,  and  who,  when  conversa- 
tion flagged,  could  play  the  harp,  the  guitar,  the  violin,  the 
violoncello,  and  the  harmonica.  He  was  also  a perfect  genius 
in  mechanical  contrivances  ; he  improved  the  last-named  instru- 
ment, and  invented  the  4 ‘Franklin  stove.”  Nothing  escaped 
his  attention  or  observation  ; now  it  was  the  discovery  that 
the  north-east  storms  on  the  Atlantic  coast  move  backward, 
from  south-west  to  north-east,  and  abate  in  violence  as  they 
go ; or  that  ants  have  the  power  to  communicate  thought ; or 
it  was  an  experiment  to  revive,  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  flies 
drowned  in  Madeira  wine.  But  the  greatest  of  all  his  scientific 
achievements  wrere  his  discoveries  in  electricity,  by  which  he 
demonstrated  the  identity  of  lightning  witli  the  electricity 
excited  by  artificial  means,  and  became  a benefactor  of  the 
world  in  giving  it  the  lightning-rod. 

The  story  of  his  kite  is  too  familiar  to  be  repeated  here,  but 
it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  say  that  the  little  boy  who 
accompanied  him  on  the  memorable  excursion  had  attained  the 
mature  age  of  twenty-two.  The  fame  of  his  discovery  spread 


244 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


throughout  the  world,  and  made  him  speedily  the  most  cele- 
brated American  in  Europe ; the  Royal  Society  of  London 
elected  him  a member,  and  conferred  on  him  the  Copley 
Medal ; the  great  Kant  of  Ivonigsberg  called  him  the  modern 
Prometheus  who  had  brought  down  fire  from  heaven,  etc. 

Meanwhile  the  modest  discoverer  continued  his  experiments, 
many  of  which  were  not  only  ingenious  but  diverting.  He 
would  electrify  a young  lady,  and  a young  gentleman  not  aware 
of  her  state,  and  encouraged  to  snatch  a kiss  from  her  ruby 
lips,  would  be  punished  for  his  temerity  by  a spark  and  a shock 
that  sent  him  dancing  to  another  part  of  the  room  ; it  is  also 
said  that  he  electrified  the  railing  in  front  of  his  house  to  keep 
off  inquisitive  idlers,  and  the  like.  But  the  immediate  and 
practical  benefit  of  his  discovery  he  gave  to  the  world  in  “Poor 
Richard’s  Almanac  ” for  1753. 

“ How  to  secure  Houses , etc.,  from  Lightning.  — It  has  pleased 
God  in  his  Goodness  to  Mankind,  at  length  to  discover  to  them 
the  Means  of  securing  their  Habitations  and  other  Buildings 
from  Mischief  by  Thunder  and  Lightning.  The  Method  is  this  : 
Provide  a small  Iron  Rod  (it  may  be  made  of  the  Rod-iron  used 
by  Nailers),  but  of  such  length,  that  one  End  being  three  or 
four  Feet  in  the  moist  Ground,  the  other  may  be  six  or  eight 
Feet  above  the  highest  part  of  the  Building.  To  the  upper  End 
of  the  Rod  fasten  about  a foot  of  Brass  Wire,  the  size  of  a com- 
mon Knitting-needle,  Sharpened  to  a fine  Point : the  Rod  may 
be  secured  in  the  House  by  a few  small  Staples.  If  the  House 
or  Barn  be  long,  there  may  be  a Rod  and  Point  at  each  End, 
and  a middling  Wire  along  the  Ridge  from  one  to  the  other. 
A House  thus  furnished  will  not  be  damaged  by  Lightning,  it 
being  attracted  to  the  Points,  and  passing  through  the  Metal 
into  the  Ground  without  hurting  any  Thing.  Vessels  also  hav- 
ing a sharp  pointed  Rod  fixed  on  the  top  of  their  Masts,  with  a 
Wire  from  the  Foot  of  the  Rod  reaching  down,  round  one 
of  the  Shrouds,  to  the  Water,  will  not  be  hurt  by  Lightning.” 

The  vast  and  shining  merit  of  Franklin  singled  him  out  for 


1730-1753.] 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN . 


245 


public  trusts.  His  public  spirit  and  philanthropy,  demonstrated  in 
tbe  establishment  of  a library,  a hospital,  and  a college,  all  called 
into  being  by  his  energy,  gave  him  great  influence,  and  step  by 
step  he  rose  in  the  public  service.  He  was  an  alderman,  be- 
came clerk  to  the  General  Assembly  of  Penns}Tlvania,  was 
appointed  postmaster  of  Philadelphia,  chosen  a member  of  the 
Assembty,  and  commissioned  postmaster-general  for  America. 
That  office  he  held  for  many  years,  and  explained  this  tenacity 
by  the  playful  remark  that  he  lacked  “ the  Christian  virtue  of 
resignation,”  his  rule  being  “ never  to  ask  for  offices”  and 
“ never  to  resign  them.”  In  his  capacity  as  postmaster-gen- 
eral he  rendered  valuable  aid  to  Braddock,  and  during  the  panic 
which  prevailed  after  his  failure,  it  was  Franklin’s  influence 
which  gave  to  the  colon}^  a militia  force ; that  influence  even 
prevailed  with  the  Friends,  from  whom  he  obtained  subscriptions 
for  gunpowder  under  the  specious  plea  of  requiring  the  money 
for  the  purchase  of  u bread,  flour,  wheat,  and  other  grain.” 
Franklin  himself  accepted  a military  commission,  and  in  the 
quality  of  colonel,  exalted  by  compliment  to  “general,” 
defended  for  several  months  the  frontier,  which  then  was  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Bethlehem,  from  the  incursions  of  the 
Indians. 

About  this  time  the  inevitable  and  interminable  squab- 
bles between  the  Assembly  and  the  Penns  had  reached  a 
crisis.  The  governors  of  Pennsylvania  were  the  deputies  of 
the  Penns,  and  ruled  the  province  under  “instructions,”  of 
which  this  was  the  chief,  that  under  no  circumstances  must  any 
public  burden  touch  the  estate  of  the  proprietary.  The  colony 
had  spent  on  the  king’s  service  in  four  }~ears  the  sum  of 
£218,000  sterling,  and  the  Assembly  in  laying  their  tax  had 
assessed  the  Penn  estate  in  the  paltry  sum  of  £550  a year. 
This  the  proprietors  refused  to  pay,  and  the  Assembty  said 
they  must  pay.  It  being  impossible  to  solve  the  difficulty  with 
the  governor,  the  Assembly  concluded  to  send  Franklin  to 
England,  commissioned  as  Agent  of  Pennsylvania,  with 


246 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


power  to  place  the  affairs  of  that  Commonwealth  on  a more 
satisfactory  footing.  In  the  pursuit  of  this  business  he  spent 
some  five  years  in  England,  with  the  result  that  the  king  in 
Privy  Council  decided  that  the  estates  of  the  Penns  should  bear 
their  due  proportion  of  the  taxes.  On  his  return  to  Philadel- 
phia, in  1762,  the  Assembly  voted  him  £3,000  sterling  for  his 
services  in  England,  and  their  thanks. 

These  long  and  successful  negotiations  in  England,  which  had 
made  him  personally  acquainted  with  many  of  the  most  distin- 
guished and  influential  people  there,  were  the  years  of  his  ap- 
prenticeship in  diplomacy.  Two  years  later,  when  Mr.  Gren- 
ville’s purpose  to  tax  the  colonies  by  the  imposition  of  a stamp 
duty  filled  America  with  indignation,  the  Assembly  of  Penn- 
sylvania elected  Franklin  their  agent  witli  instructions  to  use 
his  influence  with  the  ministry  in  England  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  such  an  act.  He  accordingly  returned  to  that 
country  late  in  1764,  but  his  efforts  were  unavailing.  The 
Stamp  Act  was  to  go  into  effect  on  Nov.  1,  1765,  and  it  was 
known  in  England  that  the  colonies  had  refused  to  obey  it. 
Franklin  now  used  every  weapon  at  his  command  to  effect  its 
repeal.  Among  the  numerous  witnesses  examined  by  Parlia- 
ment on  American  affairs,  Franklin  was  the  most  important ; 
the  information  he  gave  was  so  clear,  able,  and  just,  and  his 
presence  of  mind  so  remarkable,  that  when  the  question  of  the 
Feb.  21,  repeal  came  up,  it  was  passed  by  a majority  of  108 
1766  voices.  The  announcement  was  hailed  in  America 
with  unbounded  enthusiasm,  but  followed  in  England  by  a 
strong  reaction,  and  Franklin,  unable  to  prevent  a disruption, 
the  breaking  of  c 4 the  beautiful  porcelain  vase  ” of  the  British 
may  5,  empire,  as  he  called  it,  shook  the  dust  of  England 
1775  from  his  feet,  and  returned  to  Philadelphia. 

A day  after  his  arrival,  the  Assembly  of  Pennsylvania 
elected  him  by  a unanimous  vote  a delegate  to  the  second  Con- 
gress, in  the  labors  of  which  he  bore  a conspicuous  part ; he 
served  on  ten  committees;  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  committee 


1766-1776.] 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 


247 


of  five  to  draft  the  Declaration  of  Independence  ; he  was  one  of 
the  committee  of  three,  elected  to  conduct  the  Conference  with 
lord  Howe  ; and  when  through  his  instrumentality,  intelligence 
came  of  the  friendly  feelings  of  France  for  the  Thirteen  United 
Colonies,  and  Congress  resolved  to  send  an  embassy  to  that 
country,  he  was  elected,  conjointly  with  Silas  Deane  and  Arthur 
Lee,  to  engage  in  that  difficult  and  perilous  service. 

The  last-named  persons  were  already  in  Europe  on  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Secret  Committee  of  Congress,  the  former  in  Paris, 
the  latter  in  London,  but  their  preliminary  labors  had  been 
neither  performed  with  skill,  nor  crowned  with  success. 
Franklin  arrived  at  Paris  towards  the  close  of  Decern-  r 

1776 

her.  The  fame  and  celebrity  he  had  justly  won  pre- 
ceded him,  and  gave  him  a most  cordial  reception. 

44  No  Englishman,”  says  a recent  English  writer,  44  was  ever 
so  caressed  in  Paris,  for  the  very  reason  that  Franklin  was,  and 
was  not,  an  Englishman.”  That  is  not  the  true  reason  ; he  was 
caressed  because  he  was  Franklin.  44  Men,”  says  a Frenchman, 
44  imagined  they  saw  in  Franklin  a sage  of  antiquity,  come 
back  to  give  austere  lessons  and  generous  examples  to  the 
moderns.  They  personified  in  him  the  republic  of  which  he 
was  the  representative  and  legislator.  They  regarded  his  vir- 
tues as  those  of  his  countrymen,  and  even  judged  of  their 
physiognomy  by  the  imposing  and  serene  traits  of  his  own. 
Happy  was  he  who  could  gain  admittance  to  see  him  in  the 
house  which  he  occupied.  This  venerable  old  man,  it  was  said, 
joined  to  the  demeanor  of  Phocion  the  spirit  of  Socrates.” 

His  appearance  at  Paris,  his  presence,  tact,  wisdom,  and 
zeal,  achieved  in  the  darkest  and  most  perilous  years  of  the 
gigantic  struggle  for  freedom  as  much  as  Washington  accom- 
plished in  the  field.  In  the  gloomy  outlook  of  American  affairs 
at  the  time  of  Franklin’s  arrival,  the  French  government  was 
not  over-anxious  for  opening  diplomatic  relations,  but  it  never- 
theless offered  and  gave  unofficially  the  handsome  sum  of 
2,000,000  of  francs  to  the  use  of  44  an  illustrious  Congress.” 


248 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


The  events  in  America  were  favorable  neither  to  the  political 
status  nor  to  the  financial  resources  of  the  young  republic. 
France  helped  generous^  but  timidly  ; news  came  that  Phila- 
delphia was  in  the  hands  of  the  British.  An  Englishman  said 
to  Franklin,  “ Well,  doctor,  Howe  has  taken  Philadelphia.’ ’ 
“ I beg  your  pardon,”  rejoined  the  staunch  old  patriot,  “ Phila- 
delphia has  taken  Howe.”  And  he  was  right.  But  on  the 
heels  of  that  news  came  the  astounding  tidings,  which  thrilled 
Europe,  that  Burgoyne  and  his  whole  army  were  prisoners  of 
war.  To  Franklin  and  the  envoys  it  was  glorious  news,  the 
harbinger  of  better  days,  and  the  immediate  precursor  of  the 
jo}Tful  message  which  they  had  to  send  to  America,  that  the 
king  of  France  had  determined  to  conclude  a treaty  of  alliance 
with  the  United  States. 

A few  weeks  later  the  royal  intention  became  fact  in  the 
Feb.  6,  treaties  of  amity  and  commerce,  and  of  alliance,  con- 
1778  eluded  between  France  and  America;  but  the  formal 
announcement  of  the  event  did  not  take  place  until  six  weeks 
afterwards,  when  the  envoys  were  presented  to  the 

March  20.  j l 

king. 

It  was  ct  propos  of  this  presentation  that  agreeably  to  the 
rigid  etiquette  of  the  court  of  Louis  XVI.,  Franklin  ordered  a 
wig,  then  an  indispensable  article  of  court  dress.  When  the 
wig-maker  brought  the  wig  and  tried  it  on,  he  found  to  his 
chagrin  that  it  was  not  a good  fit.  Franklin  thought  it  was  too 
small ; the  wig-maker  was  furious  at  this  reflection  upon  his 
work,  protesting  that  that  was  not  possible.  But  it  was  too 
small.  At  last,  looking  wistfully  at  the  envoy,  in  a transport  of 
rage  (as  some  say) , or  of  pleasure  at  the  discovery  (as  others 
report),  he  cried,  “ No,  monsieur,  the  wig  is  not  too  small,  but 
your  head  is  too  large.”  The  doctor  smilingly  opined  that 
that  could  hardly  be  a fault,  as  God,  who  could  not  err, 
had  made  his  head.  “Ah,”  rejoined  the  wig-maker,  “the 
doctor’s  head  had  not  the  honor  to  be  made  in  Paris  ; for  if 
it  had,  it  would  have  been  only  half  as  large.”  And  so  for 


1778-1782.] 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN, 


249 


want  of  getting  a good-sized  wig,  Franklin  went  to  court 
without  one. 

This  French  alliance  bore  immediate  fruit  in  the  appointment 
of  Mr.  Gerard  as  ambassador  to  the  United  States,  and  in  mate- 
rial aid  without  which  the  final  and  glorious  issue  might  have 
been  very  different.  Congress,  inexperienced  in  the  ways  of 
diplomacy,  had  committed  the  radical  fault  of  appointing  a plu- 
rality of  diplomatic  representatives  with  co-ordinate  powers,  but 
after  the  arrival  of  Mr.  Gerard,  and  not  without  his  influence, 
rectified  the  matter  by  designating  Dr.  Franklin  Sole  Plenipo- 
tentiary at  Paris. 

His  vast  influence,  age  and  character,  conspired  to  make 
him,  not  without  the  jealousy  of  his  associates,  the  head  and 
front  of  the  mission.  One  day  a large  cake  was  sent  to  the 
room  where  the  envoys  were  in  session,  bearing  the  inscription, 
u Le  digne  Franklin.”  Deane  said,  u As  usual,  Doctor,  we 
have  to  thank  you  for  our  accommodation,1  and  to  appropriate 
your  present  to  our  joint  use.”  “ Not  at  all,”  rejoined  Frank- 
lin, examining  the  inscription,  u this  must  be  intended  for  all  the 
commissioners  ; only,  these  French  people  cannot  write  English. 
They  mean,  no  doubt,  Lee,  Deane,  Franklin.”  u That  might 
answer,”  added  the  suspicious  Lee,  u but  we  know  that  when- 
ever they  remember  us  at  all,  they  always  put  you  first.” 

The  material  aid  obtained  from  France  through  Franklin’s 
influence  consisted  in  money  to  the  amount  of  26,000,000  of 
francs,  and  the  despatch  of  an  army  and  a fleet  whose  hearty 
and  effective  co-operation  with  the  American  army  compelled 
Cornwallis  to  surrender  at  Yorktown. 

That  event  virtually  closed  the  war.  “ Oh,  God,  it  is  all 
over !”  exclaimed  lord  North  at  its  announcement.  fee.  28, 
Three  months  later  the  House  of  Commons  passed  an  1782 
address  to  the  king,  soliciting  him  “ to  stop  the  prosecution  of 


1 In  allusion  to  the  house  they  occupied  at  Passy,  most  generally  offered 
to  Pranklin  and  his  associates,  by  Mr.  de  Chaumont,  free  of  rent. 


250 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D, 


any  further  hostilities  against  the  revolted  colonies,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reducing  them  to  obedience  by  force.’ , That  address 
was  the  harbinger  of  peace. 

Early  in  the  preceding  year  Franklin  had  asked  Congress  to 
relieve  him  of  his  office,  but  that  Body  not  only  declined  to  ac- 
cept his  resignation,  but  appointed  him  joint  commissioner  with 
Adams  and  Jay  to  negotiate  for  peace. 

Preliminary  discussions  took  place  early  in  the  year,  and 
paved  the  way  for  negotiations,  in  which  Franklin  bore  a con- 
spicuous part,  which  resulted  in  the  conclusion  of  a preliminary 
treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
Nov.  30,  subject  to  the  prefato^  declaration  that  the  4 4 treaty 

1782  is  not  to  be  concluded  until  terms  of  peace  shall  be 
agreed  upon  between  Great  Britain  and  France.”  A few  weeks 
later  the  preliminaries  of  the  general  peace  were  signed  at  Ver- 
sailles. The  war  was  over,  the  United  States  with  the  help  of 
France  were  independent,  and  the  venerable,  undaunted  cham- 
pion of  the  liberties  of  the  young  republic  exclaimed,  as  he  em- 
jan.  20,  braced  the  duke  de  la  Rochefoucault  that  day  at  dinner, 

1783  in  the  exuberance  of  grateful  and  patriotic  delight, 
44  My  friend,  could  I have  hoped,  at  my  age,  to  enjoy  such  a 
happiness  ! ” 

The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  was  signed  in  London,  that  between  France  and 
Great  Britain  at  Versailles,  Sept.  3,  1783.  Congress  ratified  it 
Jan.  14,  1784,  and  the  king  of  England,  April  9,  1784. 

Pending  the  acceptance  of  his  third  request  for  being  recalled, 
Franklin,  though  afflicted  with  a painful  malad}',  was  busily 
and  pleasantly  occupied  with  diplomatic  duties,  and  his  favorite 
pursuits.  Congress  at  length  accepted  his  resignation,  and 
appointed  Mr.  Jefferson  his  successor. 

His  last  official  act  in  Europe  was  the  signing  of  the  treaty 
with  Prussia,  which  Washington  styled  the  most  original  and 
the  most  liberal  treaty  ever  negotiated  between  independent 
powers. 


1782-1787] 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN . 


251 


On  the  eve  of  his  departure  the  king  of  France  instructed  his 
minister  to  write  to  him,  u I can  assure  you,  sir,  that  the  esteem 
the  king  entertains  for  you  does  not  leave  you  anything  to  wish, 
and  that  his  majesty  will  learn  with  real  satisfaction  that 
your  fellow-citizens  have  rewarded,  in  a manner  worthy  of  you, 
the  important  services  that  you  have  rendered  them.”  The 
king’s  portrait  set  in  408  brilliants  accompanied  the  farewell 
letter. 

So  after  affectionate  leave-taking,  universally  beloved,  re- 
spected, and  regretted,  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  greeted  by 
the  hearty  welcome  of  his  family  and  fellow-citizens.  He 
was  now  in  the  79th  year  of  his  life,  and  had  hoped  to  spend 
the  remainder  of  it  in  privacy,  but  that  was  not  to  be. 
He  was  elected  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  and  he  wrote  on  the 
subject,  “ I had  not  firmness  enough  to  resist  the  unanimous 
desire  of  my  country  folks  ; and  I find  myself  harnessed  again 
in  their  service  for  another  year.  They  engrossed  the  prime  of 
my  life.  They  have  eaten  my  flesh,  and  seem  resolved  now  to 
pick  my  bones.” 

For  three  terms  he  filled  the  gubernatorial  chair  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  then  retired  from  public  office. 

He  had  also  taken  a prominent  part  in  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention of  1787,  concerning  which  two  incidents  may  interest 
the  reader.  After  the  Convention  had  been  in  session  upwards 
of  two  months,  and  the  differences  between  the  members  led 
often  to  excited  and  acrimonious  debates,  Franklin  proposed  as 
a salutary  means  for  the  restoration  of  calmness  the  adoption  of 
a rule  requiring  the  daily  sessions  to  be  opened  with  prayer. 
But  the  motion  could  not  be  carried,  and  Franklin  observed  in 
a note  to  his  speech,  u The  Convention,  except  three  or  four 
persons,  thought  prayer  unnecessary.” 

At  the  close  of  the  Convention,  Franklin  in  a characteristic 
speech  urged  those  dissatisfied  with  the  Constitution  to  sacrifice 
their  private  opinions  to  the  public  welfare,  and  induced  them  to 
sign  the  document.  u While  the  last  members  were  signing,” 


252 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


writes  Madison,  u Dr.  Franklin,  looking  towards  the  president's 
chair,  at  the  back  of  which  a rising  sun  happened  to  be  painted, 
observed  to  a few  members  near  him,  that  painters  had  found 
it  difficult  to  distinguish  in  their  art  a rising  from  a setting  sun. 

‘ I have,'  said  he,  c often  and  often,  in  the  course  of  the  session, 
and  the  vicissitudes  of  my  hopes  and  fears  to  its  issue,  looked 
at  that  behind  the  president,  without  being  able  to  tell  whether 
it  was  rising  or  setting ; but  now,  at  length,  I have  the  happi- 
ness to  know  that  it  is  a rising  and  not  a setting  sun.'  ” 

Busy,  and  profitably  busy,  to  the  last  moment  of  his  life,  ever 
cheerful,  affectionate,  benevolent,  his  mind  undimmed  by  age, 
in  great  suffering  of  pain,  his  eyes  fixed  upon  a picture  of  the 
Saviour,  Franklin  quietly  expired,  surrounded  by  his  family, 
April  17,  1790,  in  the  85th  year  of  his  life. 

Perhaps  the  briefest,  truest,  and  most  unexceptionable  esti- 
mate of  his  life  and  worth  is  contained  in  Washington's  letter 
to  him  received  during  his  illness.  “If  to  be  venerated  for 
benevolence,  if  to  be  admired  for  talents,  if  to  be  esteemed  for 
patriotism,  if  to  be  beloved  for  philanthropy,  can  gratify  the 
human  mind,  you  must  have  the  pleasing  consolation  to  know 
that  you  have  not  lived  in  vain.  And  I flatter  myself  that  it 
will  not  be  ranked  among  the  least  grateful  occurrences  of  your 
life  to  be  assured  that,  so  long  as  I retain  my  memory,  you  will 
be  recollected  with  respect,  veneration,  and  affection  by  your 
sincere  friend." 


REFERENCES. 

Weems,  “Life  of  Franklin  Sparks,  “Life  and  Works  of  Frank- 
lin”; Barton,  “Life  and  Times  of  Benjamin  Franklin”;  Bigelow, 
“The  Life  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  written  by  Himself.” 


1769-1821.] 


NAPOLEON  I. 


253 


NAPOLEON  I.  [1769-1821 

I. 

At  Ajaccio,  in  the  island  of  Corsica,  acquired  by  France 
in  1768,  Napoleon,  the  second  son  of  Carlo  Bonaparte,  a 
lawyer,  was  born  Aug.  15,  1769.  Educated  in  the  military 
school  of  Brienne,  a town  in  the  Champagne,  he  excelled  in 
mathematics  and  ancient  history,  and  one  of  his  teachers  pre- 
dicted that  under  favorable  circumstances  the  youthful  Corsican 
would  make  his  mark.  In  1785  the  lad,  only  sixteen 

J Sept.  1. 

years  old,  was  appointed  second  lieutenant  in  the  royal 
artillery,  and  gained  the  respect  and  confidence  of  his  superiors 
by  his  attainments  and  exemplary  conduct.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution  he  sided  with  the  people,  and  ordered  as  lieutenant- 
colonel  the  bombardment  of  Toulon  in  1793,  which  had  declared 
against  the  Republic.  Promoted  general,  he  was  ar-  feb.  6, 

rested  as  a partisan  of  Robespierre,  and  though  released,  1794 

displaced  from  the  service.  In  1795  he  was  again  in  Paris  seek- 
ing active  employment,  and  obtained  the  appointment  of  ^ 
commander  of  the  troops  for  the  defence  of  that  city. 

His  skill  and  resolute  bearing  frustrated  the  attempt  of  the 
National  Guard,  which  mustered  30,000,  to  take  by  force  the 
Tuileries,  where  the  Convention  was  in  session.  Napoleon 
directed  a terrible  cannonade  and  routed  the  Guard.  A few 
months  later  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  feb.  23, 
the  army  of  Italy,  and  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  mar-  1796 
riecl  Josephine,  the  widow  of  general  Beauharnais.  On  the  9th 
March,  1796,  he  was  married,  and  twelve  days  later  set  out  for 
his  command.  That  marriage  was  quite  romantic.  One  morning 
a boy  of  about  thirteen  appeared  before  the  general,  weeping  and 


254 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


unable  to  speak.  Encouraged  by  the  kind  words  of  Napoleon, 
the  boy  said  he  was  Eugene  Beauharnais,  and  had  come  to 
reclaim  his  father’s  sword,  whose  valor  and  patriotism  had 
been  rewarded  on  the  block.  He  got  the  sword,  and  when 
his  mother,  alike  famed  for  beauty,  amiability,  and  kindness, 
came  to  thank  the  general,  he  fell  in  love  with  her ; his  affec- 
tion was  returned,  and  marriage  ensued. 

Before  we  proceed,  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  in  con- 
sequence of  an  agreement  between  Leopold  II.,  emperor  of 
Austria,  and  Frederic  William  II.,  king  of  Prussia,  for  the 
restoration  of  the  old  regime  in  France,  Louis  XYI.  had  de- 
clared war  against  the  emperor  Francis  II.,  who  had  succeeded 
his  father  Leopold  in  1792,  and  hostilities  had  begun  in  the 
Netherlands  and  on  the  Khine.  In  1793  England  and  the 

other  powers  ioined  this  league  against  France,  which 

March  7.  ° ° 

is  known  as  the  u First  Coalition.” 

The  Peace  of  Basle,  concluded  in  1795,  led  to  the  withdrawal 
of  Prussia.  The  Italian  army,  led  by  Napoleon,  marched  against 
Austria.  The  rapidity  of  his  exploits  was  as  wonderful  as  those 
exploits  themselves.  He  found  his  command  half  as  strong  as 
he  had  expected,  demoralized,  without  discipline,  half-starved, 
and  half-clad.  Yet  with  that  army  of  about  30,000  foot,  3,000 
horse,  and  30  pieces,  Napoleon  marched  against  the  Austrian 
and  Sardinian  host  of  at  least  double  that  strength  in  numbers 
and  a park  of  artillery  of  200  pieces,  and  by  the  magic  of  his 
impassioned  oratory  inspired  them  with  invincible  courage. 
“ Soldiers!”  he  said  to  them,  6 ‘you  are  bare  and  ill-fed  ; the 
government  owes  you  much,  and  cannot  give  }rou  anything.  I 
admire  your  patience  and  courage  amid  these  rocks  ; they  will 
not  add  to  your  glory.  But  I will  lead  you  to  the  most  fertile 
plains  of  the  world,  and  place  rich  provinces  and  large  cities 
in  your  power ; there  you  will  find  honor,  glory,  and  riches. 
Soldiers  of  Italy  ! }tou  will  not  fail  in  courage  and  constancy.” 

They  did  not  fail,  and  under  his  victorious  lead,  defeated  in 
four  battles,  fought  in  a fortnight,  the  Sardinian  army,  and 


1792-1797.] 


NAPOLEON  I. 


255 


compelled  the  king  to  sue  for  peace.  Eighteen  days  later 
he  vanquished  the  Austrians  in  the  battle  of  Lodi,  mayio, 

occupied  Milan,  and  was  virtually  master  of  Lorn-  1796 

hardy.  The  Italian  allies  of  Austria,  the  dukes  of  Parma  and 
Modena,  pope  Pius  VI.,  and  the  king  of  Naples  sued  for  peace. 
He  laid  their  territories  under  heavy  contributions  in  money,  and 
his  soldiers  were  not  slow  to  enrich  themselves  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  conquered.  Pavia  was  sacked,  and  learned  robbers 
from  Paris  undertook  on  scientific  principles  the  spoliation  of 
the  choicest  treasures  of  art  and  learning.  The  emperor 
Francis  II.  resolved  to  recover  Lombardy  and  sent  a second 
army,  60,000  strong,  under  Wurmser,  into  Italy.  He  wras 
defeated  in  several  battles  and  forced,  with  the  remnant  of 
liis  troops,  to  stand  the  hardships  of  a protracted  siege  in  the 
fortress  of  Mantua.  A third  Austrian  army,  50,000  strong, 
was  sent  to  his  relief ; the  Austrians  at  first  were  successful, 
but  in  the  battle  of  Areola,  near  Verona,  which  lasted  noy.  15-17, 
three  days,  met  with  a crushing  defeat,  followed  about  1796 
two  months  later  by  the  complete  rout  at  Rivoli  of  a jAN.  ut 
fourth  army,  50,000  strong,  and  the  surrender  at  1797 
Mantua  of  Wurmser,  who  was  starving. 

The  undisputed  master  of  Italy,  Napoleon  founded  under  the 
auspices  of  France  the  “Cisalpine  Republic,”  embracing  Milan, 
Modena,  Bologna,  and  Ferrara,  and  the  “Ligurian  Republic” 
of  Genoa.  The  Directory  offered  an  armistice  to  the  emperor, 
which  was  rejected  in  consequence  of  the  successful  operations 
carried  on  by  archduke  Charles  over  the  French  on  the  Rhine. 
The  archduke  was  ordered  to  Italy  ; his  force,  composed  in  the 
main  of  raw  recruits,  was  unable  to  stand  before  the  victorious 
veterans  of  Napoleon,  and  began  an  orderly  retreat,  while  the 
French  commander  pushed  at  the  head  of  his  army  through  the 
Tyrol,  and  Styria,  as  far  as  Leoben,  a town  in  the  latter  prov- 
ince, and  only  180  miles  distant  from  Vienna.  There  an 
armistice  was  agreed  to,  which  led  to  the  treat}'  of  oct.  it, 
Campo  Formio,  agreeably  to  which  Austria  ceded  to  1797 


256 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


France  the  Netherlands,  Lombardy,  and  some  smaller  terri- 
tories, and  secured  in  return  part  of  the  dominions  of  Venice. 

An  incident  connected  with  that  famous  treaty  is  the  read- 
ing of  the  first  draft  to  Napoleon,  who,  hearing  the  opening 
sentence,  “ The  emperor  of  Germany  recognizes  the  French 
republic,”  bade  the  reader  stop,  exclaiming  with  great  vehe- 
mence: u Erase  that  article.  The  French  Republic  is  like  the 
sun,  and  he  is  blind  that  does  not  see  it ! ” He  added  in  a 
calmer  tone  the  sentiment,  prophetic  of  the  future  course  of 
the  speaker  : 4 4 The  French  people  is  its  own  master  : to-day  it 
makes  a republic,  to-morrow  it  may  create  an  aristocracy,  and 
the  day  after  perhaps  a monarchy.  This  is  its  inalienable 
right.  The  form  of  its  government  is  a purely  domestic 
affair.” 

Austria  ceded  also  to  France  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  from 
Basle  to  Andernach,  and  the  supremacy  of  that  country  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  facts  that  the  French  general  Berthier  con- 
verted the  Estates  of  the  Church  into  a Roman  Republic  and 
1798]  carr*ed  the  pope  (Pius  VI.)  as  prisoner  to  Paris. 

French  troops  invaded  Switzerland  and  established  a 
Helvetic  Republic  subject  to  France,  and  in  the  following 
year,  the  victories  of  Napoleon  had  made  her  mistress  of 
Italy,  Switzerland,  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  Belgium,  and 
Holland. 

A contemplated  invasion  of  England  had  given  to  Napoleon, 
in  1797,  the  vague  appointment  of  commander-in-chief  of  the 
invading  army,  which  began  its  operations  in  Egypt  as  the  gate- 
way to  India.  Turkey  and  France  being  at  peace,  the  invasion 
of  that  country  as  a dependency  of  the  former  was  an  act  of 
mat  19,  wanton  and  brutal  outrage.  Napoleon  left  Toulon 
1798  with  an  armament  of  40,000  men,  carried  on  350  trans- 
ports and  convoyed  b}r  24  men-of-war ; he  safely  avoided  the 
English  fleet  commanded  by  Nelson,  and  took  Malta  through 
the  treachery  of  the  French  Knights  in  that  island. 

Disembarking  Juty  1,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Alexandria,  he 


1798-1799.] 


NAPOLEON  I. 


257 


took  that  city  and  marched  upon  Cairo,  engaged  in  constant 
skirmishes  with  the  Mamelukes. \ Arrived  at  the  Pyramids, 
whose  sight  filled  the  soldiers  with  amazement,  Napoleon  ex- 
claimed: u Soldiers,  you  are  here  to  free  this  land  from  bar- 
barism, to  civilize  the  East,  and  to  save  this  beautiful  part  of 
the  world  from  the  yoke  of  England.  A battle  is  at  hand. 
Remember  that  four  thousand  years  look  down  upon  you  from 
these  majestic  heights  ! ” 

According  to  an  ancient  Arab  tradition  the  master  of  Cairo  is 
master  of  Egypt.  The  Mamelukes  knowing  that  their  fate  hung 
on  the  issue  of  the  battle,  opposed  to  Napoleon  an  army  of 
GO, 000,  and  fought  bravely.  Murad-Bey  their  general,  though 
a skilful  strategist,  had  to  bow  to  the  master  genius  of  Napoleon, 
who  scored,  July  21,  a splendid  victory  in  the  u Battle  of  the 
Pyramids/’  entered  Cairo  four  days  later,  and  made  himself 
master  of  Egypt.  The  splendid  success  of  the  army  had  an 
offset  in  the  entire  destruction  of  the  fleet  by  Nelson  at  Abukir, 
Aug.  1 . That  crushing  blow  annihilated  the  ulterior  designs  of 
Napoleon,  for  his  base  was  destroyed,  and  he  was  unable 
either  to  return  to  France,  or  to  pursue  his  plans  against  the 
East  Indies.  Quick  and  daring,  he  ordered  his  victorious 
legions  to  invade  Syria.  In  February,  1799,  he  Crossed  the 
isthmus  of  Suez,  took  Gaza  and  Jaffa  by  storm  (the  latter  on 
March  7),  and  arrived  before  Acre,  the  ancient  Ptolemais,  ten 
days  afterwards.  All  his  efforts  to  capture  that  stronghold 
miscarried,  and  on  May  20  he  began  his  retreat  to  Egypt.  A 
column  of  fire  marked  the  line  of  his  march.  Leaving  his  army 
under  the  command  of  general  Kleber,  he  sailed  from  Aug  >>3 
Alexandria,  narrowly  escaped  capture  by  the  English 
fleet,  and  landed  near  Frejus,  in  France. 

The  political  situation  in  Europe  had  undergone  a change 


1 They  were  originally  Circassian  slaves,  who  had  embraced  the  Islam 
and  acquired  their  freedom.  Up  to  this  time  they  were,  though  Turkish 
subjects,  the  real  rulers  of  Egypt. 


258 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


during  Napoleon’s  absence  in  Egypt.  The  Second  Coalition 
against  France  had  been  formed  in  1799  by  England,  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Turkey « The  Austrian  archduke  Charles  had  driven 
the  French  out  of  Switzerland  and  Germany,  while  Austrian 
and  Russian  troops  had  restored  the  Papal  States  and  the  king- 
dom of  Naples.  The  return  of  Napoleon  was  hailed  with  jubi- 
lant rejoicing,  and  his  progress  to  Paris  was  a continuous  ova- 
tion. The  Council  of  the  Ancients  made  him  commander-in- 
chief,  but  in  the  Council  of  the  Five  Hundred,  assembled  at 
St.  Cloud,  the  republican  members  to  the  number  of  from  200 
to  800  raised  the  cry,  u Death  to  the  t}Trant ! down  with  the 
dictator!”  and  rushed  upon  Napoleon,  who  calmly  left  the 
chamber,  and  having  assured  himself  of  the  support  of  his  sol- 
diers, ordered  the  chamber  to  be  cleared.  During  the  night 
measures  were  taken  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Directory  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Consulate . This  took  place  on  the  18th 
Brumaire , i.e.,  Nov.  9,  1799.  Under  the  new  Provisional  Con- 
stitution, Napoleon,  Siey&s,  and  Roger-Ducos  were  appointed 
consuls  for  ten  years,  the  former  being  named  First  Consul,  and 
clothed  with  the  power  of  appointing  to  all  public  offices,  of 
proposing  all  public  measures  in  peace  or  war,  and  of  holding 
supreme  command  of  all  civil  and  military  affairs. 
dec.  13,  The  New  Constitution,  ratified  by  a popular  vote  of 
1799  3,011,007,  was  proclaimed,  and  under  it  Napoleon  was 

First  Consul ; Cambac&res,  Second  Consul ; and  Lebrun,  Third 
Consul.  Napoleon  took  up  his  residence  in  the  Tuileries  about 
the  close  of  January,  1800. 

Among  the  first  acts  of  the  First  Consul  was  one  of  peculiar 
interest  to  this  country. 

The  death  of  Washington  was  announced  in  the  Legislative 
Body,  Feb.  2,  1800  ; Napoleon  ordered  the  adjournment  of  that 
assembly  on  the  7th  day  of  that  month  as  a mark  of  respect 
for  the  illustrious  American,  and  for  the  same  purpose  com- 
manded that  all  the  military  standards  and  ensigns  of  the 
French  army  should  be  covered  with  crape. 


1799-1802.] 


NAPOLEON  I. 


259 


After  several  months  of  extraordinary  vigor  in  all  the  admin- 
istrative arms  of  the  nation,  the  military  genius  of  Napoleon 
burst  forth  anew  in  the  resumption  of  hostilities  against 
Austria,  inaugurated  by  one  of  the  most  daring  and  magnificent 
achievements  recorded  in  history.  For  such  will  ever  be  regarded 
his  passage  of  the  Alps  with  an  army  of  35,000,  over  the  Great 
St.  Bernard  at  an  elevation  of  7,600  feet,  executed  under  most 
formidable  difficulties  with  marvellous  rapidity,  skill,  and  secrecy. 
The  army  left  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  on  May  13th, 
and  on  June  2d  took  Milan.  Twelve  days  later  was  fought  the 
decisive  battle  of  Marengo,  fiercely  contested  by  the  Austrians, 
which  for  the  second  time  brought  Northern  Italy  under  French 
domination.  On  Dec.  3 of  the  same  year  general  Moreau  de- 
feated archduke  John  at  Hohenlinden,  and  marched  as  far  as 
Linz.  The  peace  which  was  concluded  in  the  Treaty  of  Lune- 
ville,  Feb.  9,  1801,  gave  to  France  those  parts  of  Germany 
which  lay  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Peace  was  concluded 
soon  after  with  the  other  continental  powers  ; a famous  Con- 
cordat was  signed  by  Napoleon  and  pope  Pius  VII.  ; and  in  the 
Treaty  of  Amiens  England  and  France  buried  the  march  25, 
hatchet.  1802 

In  January  of  1802  Napoleon  was  made  president  of  the 
Cisalpine  Republic,  and  on  Aug.  2 of  the  same  year,  a decree 
of  the  French  Senate  declared  him  consul  for  life. 

The  interval  of  peace  was  devoted  by  Napoleon  to  adminis- 
trative measures.  A new  body  of  laws,  loosely  called  the  Code 
Napoleon , was  drawn  up  by  the  most  able  lawyers  of  France, 
which  embraced  every  department  of  law,  civil,  criminal,  mili- 
tarj~,  and  commercial.  He  regulated  the  affairs  of  the  Church, 
restored  public  worship,  established  schools,  ordered  the  con- 
struction of  highways  and  canals,  and  promoted  the  general 
order  and  prosperity  of  France  by  measures  which  often  owed 
their  efficacy  less  to  their  real  excellence  or  merit  than  to  the 
indomitable  strength  of  the  personal  will  of  the  First  Consul. 
The  discovery  of  the  dangerous  Bourbon  conspiracy  against  him, 


260 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


in  which  were  involved  Cadoudal,  Pichegru,  Moreau,  and  the 
duke  of  Enghien,  and  which  was  thought  to  have  been  counte- 
nanced in  England,  led  to  his  elevation  from  the  position  of 
consul  to  that  of  emperor.  Cadoudal  was  executed,  Pichegru 
died  in  prison,  Moreau  was  banished  and  lived  for  some  time  in 
New  Jersey,  and  the  duke  of  Enghien,  whose  share  in  the  con- 
spirac}T  has  never  been  proved,  was  really  murdered.  The  par- 
tisans of  Napoleon  loudly  proclaimed  that  lasting  security  and 
peace  could  not  be  had  unless  the  First  Consul  were  made 
emperor,  and  the  transmission  of  the  office  hereditary  in  his 
family.  An  appeal  to  the  nation  ratified  by  an  overwhelming 
vote  the  atfts  of  the  Legislature  necessary  to  the  establishment 
of  the  empire.  The  Senate,  in  a body,  informed  him  of  the 
change,  and  the  event  was  proclaimed  to  the  world  May  20, 
1804.  Napoleon  said  to  the  Senate  : 44  Whatever  promotes  the 
welfare  of  my  country  is  essential  to  my  happiness.  I accept 
the  title  which  you  judge  will  be  useful  to  the  nation.  I submit 
to  the  will  of  the  people  the  law  of  succession,  and  hope  that 
France  may  never  regret  the  honors  with  which  it  invests  my 
family.  At  any  rate,  my  spirit  will  leave  my  descendants  the 
moment  they  cease  to  be  worthy  the  love  and  confidence  of  the 
great  nation.” 

Dec.  2,  Pope  Pius  VII.  anointed  Napoleon  and  Josephine 
1804  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  on  their  foreheads 
and  hands,  offering  this  prayer:  44  Almighty  and  everlasting 
God,  deign  to  confer  through  my  hands  the  riches  of  thy  grace 
and  blessing  on  thy  servant  Napoleon,  whom,  our  personal  un- 
worthiness notwithstanding,  we  consecrate  this  da}r  in  thy  name 
emperor.”  After  this  prayer  and  office,  Napoleon  and  Jose- 
phine again  approached  the  altar,  and  when  the  pope  had  blessed 
their  crowns,  Napoleon  brusquely  seized  that  provided  for  his 
use  and  crowned  himself ; he  then  took  the  other  crown  and 
placed  it  on  the  head  of  the  empress. 

Then  seated  in  his  throne,  the  crown  upon  his  head,  his  hand 
upon  the  Gospels,  he  took  the  oath  of  office.  A herald  pro- 


1804.] 


NAPOLEON  I. 


261 


claimed  with  a loud  voice,  u The  most  glorious  and  august 
Emperor  Napoleon,  Emperor  of  the  French,  is  crowned  and 
enthroned.  Long  live  the  Emperor  ! ” 

Loud  rang  the  echoes  of  the  brilliant  assembly  collected  within 
the  walls  of  the  beautiful  cathedral,  u Long  live  the  Emperor  ! 
Long  live  the  Empress  !”  and  the  imperial  pair,  followed  by  the 
glittering  retinue  of  the  attendant  multitude,  returned  to  the 
Tuileries. 

Soon  afterwards  the  Cisalpine  Republic  proclaimed  Napoleon 
“ king  of  Italy,”  and  the  emperor,  accompanied  by  Josephine, 
proceeded  to  Italy,  and  on  May  26,  1805,  crowned  himself,  in 
the  cathedral  of  Milan,  king  of  Italy,  with  the  ancient  golden 
crown,  encircled  with  a band  of  iron,  which  was  worn  of  old 
by  the  kings  of  Lombardy,  and  had  been  used  by  Charlemagne, 
exclaiming,  “ God  gives  it  to  me.  Woe  to  the  hand  that 
touche th  it.”  The  Ligurian  Republic  was  united  to  France  ; 
and  prince  Eugene,  the  son  of  Josephine,  and  adopted  by 
Napoleon,  was  solemnly  invested  Viceroy  of  Italy  by  the 
emperor  himself. 

The  self-coronation  of  Napoleon  was  of  course  intentional 
and  of  deep  political  significance.  Charlemagne  had  received 
his  crown  at  the  hands  of  the  pope  to  the  injury  of  the  imperial 
office ; Napoleon,  by  his  act,  wished  to  avoid  the  appearance  of 
spiritual  subjection  to  the  court  of  Rome. 


262 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


NAPOLEON  I. 

ii. 

The  elevation  of  Napoleon  to  the  imperial  state  did  not 
please  the  Great  Powers  ; England  and  Russia  refused  to  recog- 
aprilii,  nize  him,  and  formed  with  Austria  a new  alliance 
1805  known  as  the  Third  Coedition.  Among  the  Lesser 
Powers,  Prussia  remained  neutral,  while  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg, 
and  Baden  entered  into  alliance  with  Napoleon.  Hanover,  as 
belonging  to  Great  Britain,  was  invaded  and  held  by  the  French, 
who  to  the  number  of  160,000  entered  Germany.  The  first 
important  event  took  place  in  Southern  Germany.  The  Aus- 
trian general  Mack,  who  was  at  Ulm  in  command  of  23,000 
troops,  was  surprised  by  Napoleon,  and  forced  to  capitulate, 
Oct.  17.1  Less  than  a month  later  his  legions  entered  the 
capital  of  Austria,  and  the  emperor  established  his  headquarters 
in  the  imperial  castle  of  Schonbrunn,  Nov.  13.  The  Rus- 
sian arm}',  under  the  immediate  command  of  the  emperor 
Alexander  I.,  was  concentrated  in  Moravia,  and  augmented  by 
the  scattered  Austrian  troops  under  the  command  of  their  em- 
peror Francis,  to  a total  of  about  100,000  men.  Napoleon, 
with  less  than  half  that  number,  hurried  from  Vienna  to  engage 
them.  The  opposing  hosts  met  at  Austerlitz,  a town  south  of 
Dec  2 Brtinn.  A terrific  battle  was  fought,  in  which  victory 
crowned  the  French. 

Among  the  terrible  incidents  of  that  terrible  day  is  the 
drowning  of  an  entire  Russian  column  in  a lake.  A thick  coat 


1 The  French  claim  that  this  capitulation  embraced  19  generals,  40,000 
soldiers,  3,000  horses,  40  ensigns,  and  80  pieces  of  cannon. 


1805-1806.] 


NAPOLEON  L 


263 


of  ice  covered  its  surface,  and  appeared  to  afford  safe  passage 
for  the  cannon  of  the  retreating  Russians.  The  French  di- 
rected their  fire  on  the  ice,  and  ploughed  it  with  their  balls ; it 
gave  way,  and  engulfed  in  the  chilly  waters  of  the  lake  the 
men,  the  horses,  and  the  cannon.  The  Russians  sought  safety 
in  retreat,  and  the  emperor  of  Austria  had  to  sue  for  peace. 
The  Treaty  of  Presburg  was  signed  Dec.  26,  by  which 
Austria  had  to  cede  her  Italian  possessions  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  the  Tyrol  to  Bavaria,  and  her  lands  in  Southern  Ger- 
many to  Wurtemberg  and  Baden.  Napoleon  moreover  re- 
warded his  allies  with  increased  honors,  for  he  promoted  the 
electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg  to  kings,  and  the  mar- 
grave of  Baden  to  the  dignity  of  a grand  duke.  By  jULY  i2f 
the  establishment  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  1806 
he  coerced  sixteen  of  the  lesser  potentates  of  Germany  into 
alliance  with  himself,  and  abolished  the  German  empire,  which 
had  existed  a thousand  years.  Francis  II.  thenceforth  called 
himself  Emperor  of  Austria. 

The  only  check  given  to  the  insatiable  lust  of  Napoleon’s 
ambition  was  the  destruction  of  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets 
at  Trafalgar,  near  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  by  the  Eng-  oct.  2i, 
lish  admiral  Nelson.  But  this  was  of  secondary  1805 
importance,  and  could  not  arrest  the  conqueror’s  progress,  who 
at  this  time  began  to  look  upon  himself  as  the  predestined  lord 
of  Europe.  This  is  not  surprising,  for  he  was  not  only  intoxi- 
cated b}T  actual  and  unparalleled  success,  but  confirmed  in  his 
views  by  the  fawning  adulation  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe, 
for  even  the  emperor  of  Russia,  on  the  morrow  after  Auster- 
litz,  sent  him,  by  one  of  the  French  generals,  this  message, 
4 4 Go  tell  your  master  that  I shall  retreat ; he  wrought  miracles 
yesterday  which  have  increased  my  admiration  of  his  genius  ; 
it  is  predestined  by  heaven  that  I shall  require  a century  to 
raise  my  army  to  the  level  of  his.” 

In  the  consciousness  of  his  irresistible  strength  he  deposed 
and  made  kings,  and  changed  the  geography  of  Europe  as  he 


264 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


saw  fit.  The  news  of  the  landing  of  English  and  Russian 
troops  in  Southern  Italy  he  received  with  the  declaration, 
44  Ferdinand  has  ceased  to  rule  Naples, ” and  ordered  Massena 
to  conquer  Naples  and  make  his  brother  Joseph  king.  His 
brother  Louis,  who  had  married  Hortensia  Beauharnais,  the 
step-daughter  of  Napoleon,  was  made  king  of  Holland.  Napo- 
leon III.  was  their  son. 

It  has  been  stated  that  Prussia,  ruled  since  1797  by  Frederic 
William  III.,  had  remained  neutral.  Perceiving  that  the  Rhen- 
ish Confederation  was  designed  to  weaken  and  finally  subject 
to  French  rule  the  leading  powers  of  Germany,  that  king  made 
Oct.  8,  peace  with  England  and  Sweden,  secured  the  alliance 
1806  of  Russia,  and  declared  war  against  Napoleon. 

The  Prussian  army,  including  a Saxon  contingent  of  34,000 
troops,  numbered  137,000,  and  was  commanded  by  the  duke  of 
Brunswick,  a man  72  years  of  age.  The  French  who  marched 
against  it  numbered  200,000  and  worsted  the  Prussian 
advance  in  an  engagement  at  Saalfeld,  Oct.  10.  The  main 
body  of  the  Prussians  took  positions  at  Auerstadt  and  Jena, 
and  in  two  battles  fought  on  the  same  day,  Oct.  14,  was 
not  only  defeated,  but  annihilated  b}r  the  French.  The  king 
of  Prussia,  with  the  scattered  remnants  of  his  army,  was  forced 
to  retire  to  East  Prussia. 

The  French  occupied  Berlin,  and  there  Napoleon  issued  the 
o t 27  famous  decree  against  England,  by  which  all  the  ports 
of  Europe  were  to  be  closed  against  British  ships, 
and  British  manufactures  were  forbidden  to  be  brought  to  the 
Continent. 

Three  days  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  the  elector  of  Saxony 
joined  the  Rhenish  Confederation,  and  was  made  by  Napoleon 
king  of  Saxony,  Dec.  11,  1806. 

The  Prussian  army,  newly  recruited,  and  strengthened  by  an 
auxiliary  force  of  Russians,  engaged  and  defeated  the  F rench 
Feb.  8,  iu  the  sanguinary  battle  of  Prussian  Eylau.  Prussia 
*807  failing  to  follow  up  the  advantage  she  had  gained, 


1806-1808.] 


NAPOLEON  L 


265 


Napoleon  collected  fresh  troops  and  wiped  out  his  de-  ^ 

feat  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Friedland,  fought  in  June. 

In  an  interview  between  the  emperors  of  Russia  and  France, 
and  the  king  of  Prussia,  held  on  a raft  in  the  river  Nieinen,  off 
Tilsit,  the  preliminaries  of  a peace  were  discussed,  and  the 
Treaty  of  Tilsit  was  signed,  July  7,  1807.  The  terms  of  that 
treaty  stripped  Prussia  of  all  her  possessions  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  and  these,  with  the  principalities  of  Bruns- 
wick and  Hesse-Cassel,  were  erected  into  the  kingdom  of  West- 
phalia, which  was  given  to  Jerome,  ‘the  youngest  brother  of 
Napoleon.  Prussia  also  lost  her  Polish  possessions,  which  were 
granted  to  the  pliant  king  of  Saxony.  Thus  ended  the  Prusso- 
Russian  War  of  1806  and  1807. 

In  the  latter  year  the  Great  Peninsular  War  began  with  the 
French  conquest  of  Portugal  occasioned  by  the  refusal  of  the 
prince-regent  of  that  country  to  carry  into  effect  the  Berlin 
decree  in  regard  to  British  shipping.  In  the  next  year  Napo- 
leon forced  the  royal  family  of  Spain  to  abdicate,  and  ordered 
his  brother  Joseph  to  exchange  the  crown  of  Naples  for  that  of 
u Spain  and  the  Indies.”  Joachim  Murat,  one  of  the  soldier 
adventurers  in  the  train  of  Napoleon,  who  had  married  Caroline, 
the  youngest  sister  of  the  conqueror,  and  contributed  not  a 
little  to  the  victories  of  Marengo  and  Austerlitz,  was  julyu, 
proclaimed  king  of  Naples.  1808 

The  news  of  the  abdication  of  the  lawful  royal  family  caused 
an  insurrection  in  Spain,  and  Joseph  was  forced  to  leave  Mad- 
rid a week  after  his  arrival.  Portugal  also  rose  in  arms,  and  an 
English  expedition,  30,000  strong,  under  sir  John  Moore,  landed 
in  the  Peninsula,  and  drove  the  French  out  of  Portugal.  In 
October  Napoleon  himself  invaded  Spain,  defeated  the  Span- 
iards, and  entered  Madrid.  The  English  were  driven  dec.  6, 
to  the  coast,  and  the  people  to  the  mountains,  whence  1808 
they  carried  on  a well-sustained  and  successful  warfare  against 
the  invaders. 

Acts  of  violence  similar  to  the  unjust  war  with  Spain  had 


266 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[AD, 


taken  place  in  Italy,  where  Napoleon  had  seized  Tuscany  (1807) 
and  the  Papal  States  (1809),  and  carried  off  the  pope.  Austria, 
resolved  to  stein  the  tide  of  aggression,  summoned  all  Germany 
to  arms,  and  declared  war  against  Napoleon,  April  15,  1809. 
A French  army  of  212,000  engaged  the  Austrians,  220,000 
strong,  in  the  battle  of  Ratisbon,  and  compelled  them  to  retreat 
into  Bohemia.  Napoleon  entered  Vienna  for  the  second  time, 
May  18,  1809.  The  Austrian  commander,  archduke  Charles, 
rallied  his  forces,  hastened  to  the  relief  of  the  city,  and  in  two 
fiercely  contested  battles  at  Aspern  and  Essling,  May  21  and 
22,  defeated  Napoleon.  Want  of  reinforcements  prevented  his 
making  the  victory  decisive,  while  Napoleon,  who  had  ordered 
fresh  troops  into  the  field,  was  enabled  in  the  battle  of 
Wagram  to  drive  back  the  Austrians,  and  to  reap  the 
Oct.  u,  benefits  of  the  Treaty  of  Schonbrunn,  by  which  Austria 
1809  Was  stripped  of  large  territorial  possessions,  and  com- 
pelled to  submit  to  the  marriage  of  Maria  Louisa,  the  emperor’s 
daughter,  with  Napoleon,  who  on  purely  selfish  grounds  heart- 
lessly divorced  the  childless  Josephine,  and  married  the 
Austrian  archduchess,  April  2,  1810. 

When  on  the  20th  of  March,  1811,  the  king  of  Rome  was 
born  to  Napoleon,  he  was  at  the  zenith  of  his  glory,  and  regarded 
that  event  as  the  pledge  and  guarantee  of  the  future  glory  of 
his  dynasty.  It  was  easy  for  him  to  appoint  his  brothers  and 
generals  kings  of  the  countries  he  had  conquered,  but  difficult 
to  make  them  behave  right.  His  brother  Louis,  king  of  Hol- 
land, did  not  come  up  to  his  expectations,  and  was  accord- 
ingly deposed,  while  Holland  and  the  whole  of  the  northern 
coast  of  Germany  were  incorporated  with  the  French  empire. 

The  consummation  of  that  measure  involved  the  seizure  of 
Oldenburg,  and  the  deposition  of  the  duke,  nearly  connected 
with  the  emperor  of  Russia.  The  latter  resented  the  conduct  of 
Napoleon,  and  ordered  the  decrees  against  British  shipping  to  be 
relaxed.  Thereupon  Napoleon  declared  war  against  Russia,  and 
thus  began  the  Russian  campaign. 


1809-1812] 


NAPOLEON  L 


267 


A colossal  army,  numbering  fully  half  a million  of  men, 
accompanied  by  an  overwhelming  train  of  artillery  and  imple- 
ments of  war,  began  to  move  towards  Russia  from  all 

® , June  23. 

quarters,  and  crossed  the  river  Niemen  in  three  divis-  1812 
ions.  Napoleon  captured  Wilna,  and  caused  the  June  24. 
province  of  Lithuania  to  be  laid  waste. 

Alexander,  who  had  only  315,000  men  to  oppose  to  the 
invading  hosts,  avoided  an  engagement,  and  pursued  the  policy 
of  drawing  them  into  the  heart  of  the  country,  expecting  that 
famine  and  the  terrors  of  the  Russian  winter  would  be  his 
potent  allies  in  their  ultimate  annihilation.  So  the  Russians 
deliberately  carried  fire  and  destruction  into  the  lands  through 
which  they  passed,  removed  all  the  supplies,  and  lured  the 
invader  farther  into  the  interior.  Bloody  but  indecisive  battles 
were  fought  at  Smolensk  and  on  the  Moskwa1  (name  of  the 
river  on  which  the  city  of  Moscow  is  built) , in  which  Napoleon 
was  victor. 

When  the  news  became  known  in  that  city,  the  garrison  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  population  deserted  it,  and  when  Napo- 
leon made  his  entry,  on  Sept.  14,  into  that  ancient  and  magnifi- 
cent capital,  it  was  with  the  intention  of  spending  the  winter 
there.  u The  French  army,”  he  said,  “will  be  like  a ship 
caught  in  the  ice,  but  it  will  renew  the  war  in  the  spring.”  He 
established  his  headquarters  in  the  Kremlin,  Le.,  the  fortress 
with  the  palace  of  the  czars,  to  witness  from  its  commanding 
position  the  terrible  conflagration  which  broke  out  on  the  16th 
and  raged  with  relentless  fury  until  the  19th.  It  reduced 
Moscow  to  a heap  of  ashes,  and  buried  the  proud  and  daring 
schemes  of  the  conqueror.  The  flames  even  threatened  the 
Kremlin  and  compelled  Napoleon  to  remove  his  headquarters 
to  the  palace  of  Petrowskie.  He  was  in  desperate  straits  ; the 
enemy  surrounded  him  ; he  had  neither  food  nor  shelter  for  his 


1 The  latter  is  also  called  the  battle  of  Borodino,  a village  about  75 
miles  north  of  Moscow, 


268 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


army,  reduced  in  numbers,  suffering  from  sickness  and  want, 
and  exposed  to  the  severity  of  a Russian  winter. 

To  stay  meant  death,  and  retreat  he  must.  He  sued  for 
peace,  but  Alexander  refused  to  treat  with  him  while  a single 
Frenchman  remained  on  Russian  soil.  On  Oct.  19,  he  began 
his  retreat ; he  left  the  neighborhood  of  Moscow  with  120,000 
men,  and  so  fearful  were  the  terrors  of  the  march  through  the 
wasted,  frozen  country,  that  at  Smolensk,  which  he  reached 
Nov.  4,  his  army  was  reduced  to  40,000  fighting  men. 

Afraid  that  the  Russians  would  cut  off  his  passage  of 
the  Beresina,  his  ragged,  half-starved  veterans  were  urged 
onward  in  hot  haste,  and  compelled  to  throw  two  bridges  over 
that  river.  The  enemy  was  at  hand  and  fired  shells  into  the 
retreating  braves.  In  the  universal  stampede  each  thought  only 
of  his  own  safety  : the  stronger  and  fleeter  pushed  the  weaker 
aside  or  down,  who  either  found  death  in  the  icy  flood,  or  under 
the  hoofs  of  the  horses  and  the  cannon- wheels. 

When,  on  the  evening  of  Nov.  29,  the  passage  was  nearly 
completed,  the  bridges  were  set  on  fire  in  order  to  prevent  the 
Russian  pursuit,  and  the  rear  were  made  prisoners  by  the 
enemy.  That  disastrous  passage  cost  Napoleon  about  30,000 
men ; urging  in  excuse  his  immediate  presence  at  Paris,  he 
left  the  miserable  remnant  of  his  host,  and  put  Murat  in  com- 
mand. 

His  departure  was  the  signal  of  universal  demoralization. 
The  greater  part  of  the  horses  had  perished ; when  a horse  fell 
down,  the  famished  soldiers  rushed  to  devour  it ; when  a man 
fell  in  the  ranks,  his  comrades  stripped  him  of  his  clothes  to 
cover  their  hands  and  feet.  The  second  passage  of  the  Niemen 
took  place  Dec.  16. 

A few  figures  may  give  some  idea  of  the  terrors  of  the 
Russian  campaign.  Of  his  grand  army  of  500,000  men  only 

90.000  in  all  returned  in  abject  misery  ; 100,000  were  prisoners, 

80.000  had  fallen  in  battle,  and  230,000  had  found  death  in 
other  ways.  Some  200,000  bodies  in  a state  of  decomposition 


1812-1813.] 


NAPOLEON  /. 


269 


were  picked  up  in  the  spring  of  1813  on  Russian  soil,  and  burnt. 
Only  200  cannon  had  been  saved  ; all  the  baggage  and  military  im- 
plements were  lost.  Such  was  the  issue  of  the  Russian  campaign. 

The  creation  of  a new  army  of  350,000  men  by  means  of  a 
conscription  was  the  first  and  immediate  act  of  Napoleon  upon 
his  return  to  Paris.  At  the  head  of  that  army  he  marched  into 
Germany  in  the  spring  of  1813. 

General  York,  apprised  of  the  retreat  of  Napoleon,  concluded 
a treaty  with  Russia,  and  placed  the  auxiliary  force  under  his 
command  in  the  district  between  Memel  and  Tilsit,  which  was 
declared  neutral. 

The  king  of  Prussia,  inspired  by  patriotism,  and  encouraged 
by  the  report  of  the  British  victories  in  the  Peninsula,  called 
his  people  to  arms,  and  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Russia. 
Conviction  was  rapidly  gaining  ground  that  Napoleon  was  not 
only  not  invincible,  but  that  his  days  were  numbered.  Two 
battles  were  fought  in  quick  succession,  the  first  at  may  2, 
Liitzen  and  Grossgorschen,  the  second  at  Bautzen,  1813 

in  both  of  which  Napoleon  conquered,  but  not  de-  may  21. 
cisively.  Napoleon’s  proposals  for  an  armistice  were  rejected, 
and  the  Allies,  now  including  besides  Prussia  and  Russia,  also 
Austria,  which  sent  an  army  of  300,000,  Sweden,  which  furnished 
an  auxiliary  force,  and  Great  Britain,  which  supplied  money, 
arms,  and  ammunition. 

Three  grand  army  corps  were  set  up  to  hold  Napoleon  in 
check.  The  army  of  the  North,  composed  of  Prussians,  Rus- 
sians, and  Swedes,  numbering  120,000,  and  commanded  by 
Bernadotte,  rested  on  Brandenburg  ; the  Silesian  army,  num- 
bering 90,000  Prussians  and  Russians,  commanded  by  Blticher, 
held  Silesia  ; the  main  army,  composed  of  230,000  Austrians, 
Russians,  and  Prussians,  was  commanded  by  Schwarzenberg, 
and  stood  in  Bohemia.  In  the  battles  which  ensued,  Napoleon 
defeated  the  main  army  at  Dresden  (Aug.  27,  28),  but  lost 
the  battles  of  Kulm  (Aug.  30),  on  the  Kafzbach  (Aug.  26),  of 
Grossbeeren  (Aug.  23),  and  of  Dennewitz  (Sept.  6). 


270 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


The  successes  of  the  Allies  had  drawn  also  Bavaria  into  the 
league.  Napoleon  felt  his  position  at  Dresden  untenable,  and 
moved  towards  Leipzig,  hemmed  in  on  three  sides,  where,  on 
the  days  from  Oct.  16  to  19,  was  fought  the  Great  Battle  of 
Nations,  in  which  Napoleon  was  absolutely  defeated.  On  the 
latter  day  he  began  his  retreat  in  hot  haste,  this  time  pur- 
sued by  the  victorious  Allies,  whose  numbers  had  been  aug- 
mented by  the  contingents  of  the  lesser  principalities,  and  who 
in  three  columns  approached  France,  and  slowly  but  surely 
fought  their  way  to  Paris.  They  took  Montmartre  by  storm, 
and  the  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  with  the  king  of  Prussia, 
at  the  head  of  their  guards,  made,  amid  the  shouts  of  the  popu- 
lace, their  triumphant  entry  into  Paris  on  March  31,  1814. 

The  Senate  deposed  Napoleon,  who  was  compelled  to  abdi- 
cate at  Fontainebleau  on  April  11,  1814,  and  banished  to  the 
island  of  Elba.  He  was  permitted  to  retain  the  title  of  empe- 
ror, and  allowed  an  income  of  6,000,000  francs.  A British 
ship  took  him  to  his  place  of  exile. 

The  Allies  abolished  the  empire,  and  restored  the  kingdom 
by  elevating  Louis  XVIII. , the  brother  of  Louis  XVI.,  to  the 
may  30,  throne.  With  the  new  king  the  Powers  concluded 
1814  the  First  Treaty  of  Paris,  by  which  the  geographical 
limits  of  France  were  restored  to  what  they  had  been  in  1792. 

A few  months  later  the  International  Congress  charged  with 
the  regulation  of  the  political  affairs  of  Europe  in  general,  and 
Oct.,  more  particularly  with  those  of  Germany,  was  con- 

1814  vened  at  Vienna. 

In  the  midst  of  their  deliberations  the  Congress  and  all 
Europe  were  convulsed  with  the  astounding  intelligence  that 
march  l,  Napoleon  had  left  Elba  and  landed  in  France.  The 

1815  people  received  him  with  great  enthusiasm,  the  army 
took  up  his  cause.  The  news  of  his  approach  caused  the  king 
march  20,  to  make  his  escape  from  Paris,  and  the  next  day 

1815  the  emperor  entered  the  city  in  triumph.  His  return 
was  solemnly  denounced  amid  the  protestations  of  the  Powers, 


1814-1815.] 


NAPOLEON  I. 


271 


June  18. 


who  massed  at  once  large  bodies  of  troops  commanded  b}^ 
Schwarzenberg  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  by  Blucher  on  the  Lower 
Rhine,  and  by  Wellington  in  the  Netherlands.  The  latter,  who 
had  completed  the  deliverance  of  Spain  the  year  before,  was 
appointed  by  the  Congress  commander-in-chief. 

Murat,  meanwhile,  who  had  left  Naples  at  the  head  of  a large 
army,  was  defeated  by  the  Austrians  and  fled  to  France.  The 
National  Assembly  at  Paris  begged  Napoleon  to  reassume  the 
imperial  estate,  who,  soon  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  125,000 
men,  began  operations  against  the  Allies. 

In  his  first  encounter  with  them,  at  Pigmy,  he  de- 

’ ° June  16. 

feated  Blucher,  and  compelled  Wellington  to  fall  back 
on  Waterloo,  where  was  fought  one  of  the  most  sanguinary 
battles  of  the  century ; Napoleon  attacked  Welling- 
ton, and  believed  he  had  won  the  day,  when  the 
opportune  arrival  of  Blucher,  who  had  marched  round  him, 
gave  the  death-blow  to  his  hopes  in  his  entire  overthrow.  He 
was  compelled  to  seek  safety  in  flight. 

The  House  of  Representatives  demanded  his  abdication,  and 
required  him  to  go  into  perpetual  exile  ; he  went  to  Rochefort, 
intending  to  repair  to  the  United  States.  The  Allies  entered 
Paris  for  the  second  time  ; they  abrogated  the  renewed  domin- 
ion of  Napoleon,  known  as  the  u Rule  of  the  Hundred  Days,” 
and  restored  Louis  XVIII.  By  the  provisions  of  Concluded 
the  Second  Treaty  of  Paris,  France  was  restricted  to  Nov-  20, 1 8 1 5 
the  territorial  limits  as  the}r  had  existed  in  1790,  and  required 
to  pay  an  indemnity  of  700,000,000  francs. 

Napoleon  voluntarily  sought  the  protection  of  England  by 
going  on  board  the  Bellerophon ; but  England,  deeming  it  incom- 
patible with  her  duty  to  Europe  to  permit  his  landing,  con- 
cluded to  designate  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  a solitary  rock  in 
the  southern  Atlantic,  1,000  miles  from  the  coast  of  Africa,  as 
his  future  abode.  He  was  transferred  on  board  the  Aug.  6. 
Northumberland  and  conveyed  to  the  distant  island, 
where  he  arrived  after  a long  voyage,  and  spent  the 


Oct.  17. 


272 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


last  six  years  of  his  life,  doubtless  in  wretched,  though  neces- 
sary captivity. 

He  died,  after  a year’s  bad  health,  May  4,  1821,  and  was 
buried  with  military  honors,  near  a fountain  whose  waters  had 
once  been  grateful  to  his  lips.  His  last  wrords  were,  4 4 Head  — 
army.”  Nineteen  years  later  his  remains  were  removed  to 
France,  and  deposited  in  the  H6tel  des  Invalides. 

To  France  he  gave  glory,  not  happiness  ; and  to  the  world  at 
large,  to  millions  of  his  fellow-men,  he  was  a scourge. 

REFERENCES. 

Thiers,  “History  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  Empire”;  Alison, 
“Napoleon”;  A.  Hugo,  “History  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon.” 

NOTE. 

Almost  all  the  dates  in  the  Life  of  Napoleon  have  been  drawn 
from  the  emperor’s  personal  notes,  and  other  authentic  records. 


1809-1865.] 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN . 


273 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN.  [isoo-ises 

The  father  of  Abraham  Lincoln  was  a hardy  pioneer  who,  as 
a poor  farmer,  was  making  but  a scanty  living  in  Kentucky, 
when  the  future  President  of  the  United  States  was  born.  The 
first  seven  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  povert}7  and  fee.  12, 
obscurity;  his  father  could  not  read  or  write,  but  1809 
Abraham  learned  to  read  at  the  log  cabin  of  a neighbor,  and  to 
pray  at  his  mother’s  knees.  The  whole  of  his  education  was 
a few  months’  schooling  and  covered  a very  slender  knowledge 
in  reading,  arithmetic,  and  writing. 

His  father  removed  to  Indiana,  and  if  his  method  r 

. 11816 

of  travel  was  primitive  and  simple,  it  certainly  was 
cheap  and  practical.  A raft  of  logs  lashed  together,  with  a 
few  boards  set  up  slantwise  for  a temporary  dwelling,  conveyed 
the  family  down  the  Ohio  to  the  primeval  solitude  of  Southern 
Indiana,  and  there  Abraham  learned  the  use  of  the  axe,  the 
plow,  and  the  rifle. 

All  day  long  he  toiled  on  the  farm,  but  there  was  that  within 
him  which  prompted  to  higher  and  nobler  pursuits.  At  night, 
in  the  glare  of  a log  fire,  he  sat  reading  such  books  as  he  could 
get  loaned,  or  bought  as  he  grew  older.  At  eighteen  his 
library  numbered  six  books,  of  which  the  Bible,  the  Pilgrim’s 
Progress,  and  iEsop’s  fables  were  his  favorites ; and  from  a 
borrowed  copy  of  Weems’  “ Life  of  Washington”  he  learned 
the  stoiy  of  the  Revolution  and  of  the  First  President. 

On  his  way  to  Washington,  more  than  forty  years  later,  speak- 
ing of  that  reading  at  Trenton,  and  referring  to  the  struggle 
there,  the  crossing  of  the  river,  the  contest  with  the  Hessians, 
and  the  great  hardships  then  endured,  said,  “I  recollect  think- 


274 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


ing  then,  boy  even  though  I was,  that  there  must  have  been 
something  more  than  common  that  those  men  struggled  for.  . . . 
4 4 1 am  exceedingly  anxious  that  this  Union,  the  Constitution, 
and  the  liberties  of  the  people,  shall  be  perpetuated  in  accord- 
ance with  the  original  idea  for  which  the  struggle  was  made,  and 
I shall  be  most  happy  indeed  if  I shall  be  an  humble  instrument 
in  the  hands  of  the  Almighty,  and  of  this,  his  almost  chosen 
people,  for  perpetuating  the  object  of  that  great  struggle.”  So 
he  read  to  good  purpose,  and  as  he  read  he  thought,  and  the 
thought  remained  and  sustained  him  to  the  last. 

At  nineteen  he  went  as  a hired  hand  on  a Mississippi  flat- 
1 boat,  at  $10  a month,  and  visited  New  Orleans.  On  his 
return  the  family  concluded  to  settle  on  the  rich  bot- 
tom land  of  the  Sangamon,  in  Illinois,  and  the  hardy,  strong, 
and  useful  lad  lent  a helping  hand  ; he  drove  the  cattle  on  the 
road,  assisted  in  building  a cabin,  and  with  his  sturdy  arms  split 
3,000  rails  to  enclose  the  farm.  This  is  the  origin  of  the  political 
nickname  of  “ Rail-splitter  ” by  which  he  was  often  called. 

In  Benjamin  Franklin’s  time  our  good  friends,  the  French,  did 
not  excel  in  writing  English,  and  in  our  own  time  they  do  not 
seem  to  study  it  much,  for  a learned  authority  in  French  Letters 
gravely  records  the  startling  intelligence  that  Abraham  Lincoln 
was  called  a u Rail-spitter  ” because  he  cut  the  ties  or  sleepers 
for  the  railroad.  He  appears  to  think  that  u to  spit”  rails  is 
to  cut  them. 

Abraham,  however,  did  not  remain  at  home,  and  ready 
for  anything,  pursued  a variety  of  callings.  Resuming  work 
on  a Mississippi  flatboat,  he  exchanged  boating  for  a clerkship 
in  a country  store,  and  forsook  the  counter  for  a captaincy 
in  the  Black  Hawk  War.  At  the  close  of  the  campaign 
he  returned  to  civil  life,  filling  in  succession  the  duties 
of  bookkeeper,  postmaster,  and  surveyor.  In  the  last  capacity 
he  formed  and  executed  the  project  of  studying  law,  surveying 
land  by  day,  and  reading  law-books  at  night,  which  were  loaned 
to  him  by  a legal  firm  after  office  hours,  and  had  to  be  returned 


1832] 


1830-1846.] 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN . 


275 


[l  834 


[l  846 


for  use  the  next  morning.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
he  was  sent  to  the  Legislature,  and  re-elected  three 
times.  Charmed  with  political  life,  his  reputation  for  ability, 
and  his  popular  address,  gave  him  influence,  especially  in  a can- 
vass of  the  State  for  Henry  Clay,  who  had  been  nominated  for 
the  presidency.  The  defeat  of  his  candidate,  however, 
led  to  his  own  election  to  Congress,  where  he  voted 
with  the  Whig  party,  and  opposed  the  extension  of  slavery. 

“ In  the  course  of  my  law  reading”  Lincoln  said,  “I  con- 
stantly came  upon  the  word  demonstrate , and  I asked  myself, 
What  do  I mean  when  I demonstrate,  more  than  when  I reason 
or  prove  — what  is  the  certainty  called  demonstration  ? Having- 
consulted  dictionaries  and  books  of  reference  to  little  purpose, 
I said  to  myself,  c Lincoln,  you  can  never  make  a lawyer,  if  you 
do  not  understand  what  demonstrate  means/  I had  never  had 
but  six  months’  schooling  in  m}T  life  ; but  I now  left  m}-  place 
in  Springfield,  and  went  home  to  my  father’s,  and  stayed  there 
till  I could  give  any  proposition  of  the  six  books  of  Euclid  at 
sight.”  It  was  thus  that  he  improved  himself,  and  became  a 
self-made  man. 

In  the  presidential  canvass  which  resulted  in  the  election  of 
James  Buchanan,  Lincoln  was  an  active  supporter  of  Fre- 
mont. He  had  before  ably  canvassed  the  State,  but  unsuccess- 
fully, as  candidate  for  Senator  against  Douglas.  His  brilliant 
oratory  and  skilful  debate,  especially  in  1858,  brought  him 
prominently  before  the  nation,  and  the  Republican  Convention 
which  met  in  1860  at  Chicago  nominated  him  for  the  presidency. 
There  were  three  other  candidates  in  the  field : Douglas  the 
choice  of  the  Northern  Democracy,  Breckenridge  the  nominee 
of  the  Southern  Democracy,  and  Bell,  that  of  the  “Union” 
party.  The  Democratic  party  being  divided,  and  the  Union 
party  hopelessly  weak,  the  choice  of  the  nation  fell  on  Abraham 
Lincoln. 

The  Southern  leaders  in  Congress  construed  his  election  as 
inimical  and  perilous  to  the  interests  of  the  South,  and  belie v- 


276 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[AD. 


ing  that  the  heretical  doctrine  of  State  rights  warranted  the 
separation  of  States  from  the  Union,  carried  into  effect  their 
long-threatened  secession,  and  formed  a separate  government, 
feb.,  called  the  u Confederate  States  of  America. ” They 
1861  elected  Jefferson  Davis  president,  and  Alexander  H. 
Stephens  vice-president  of  the  new  confederation,  and  seized 
the  property  of  the  United  States,  such  as  forts,  arsenals, 
custom-houses,  ships,  etc.,  within  the  several  seceded  States. 

The  General  Government  did  not  resist  these  violent  and  un- 
lawful measures.  The  sentiment  of  the  chief  executive  expressed 
in  his  message  to  Congress  u that  the  power  to  make  war  against 
a State  is  at  variance  with  tire  whole  spirit  and  intent  of  the 
Constitution,”  and  the  well-known  sympathy  of  a large  part  of 
the  Cabinet  with  the  secessionists,  encouraged  them  to  persevere 
in  their  course. 

All  this  had  happened  before  Abraham  Lincoln  assumed  his 
trust.  He  maintained  a discreet  silence  as  to  his  intentions, 
while  his  utterances  breathed  a spirit  of  conciliation  and  lofty 
patriotism.  As  the  time  for  his  inauguration  drew  nigh,  he  set 
out  from  Springfield,  Illinois,  and  took  a route  which  lay 
through  many  of  the  large  cities  of  the  country,  where  his  pres- 
ence and  judicious  speech  deepened  the  conviction  that  the 
affairs  of  the  nation  were  about  to  pass  into  strong  and  able 
hands.  The  welcome  accorded  him  was  enthusiastic,  and  his 
progress  was  a continued  ovation. 

Aware  of  rumors  of  a projected  interference  with  his  inaug- 
uration, especially  at  Baltimore,  where  Mr.  Buchanan  had  been 
insulted  four  years  before,  the  president  elect  had  quietly  taken 
measures  which  effectually  prevented  all  disturbance,  by  his 
unexpected  arrival  at  Washington  some  twelve  hours  earlier 
than  the  time  appointed. 

The  Address  delivered  at  the  time  of  his  Inauguration  was  the 
noble  utterance  of  patriotic  devotion  ; it  announced  his  personal 
conviction  “ that  in  contemplation  of  universal  law,  and  of  the 
Constitution,  the  Union  of  these  States  is  perpetual”  ; u that  no 


1846-1861.] 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN. 


277 


State,  upon  its  own  mere  motion,  can  lawfully  get  out  of  the 
Union  ; that  resolves  and  ordinances  to  that  effect  are  legally 
void ; and  that  acts  of  violence,  within  any  State  or  States, 
against  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  are  insurrectionary 
or  revolutionary  ” ; and  his  purpose  to  take  care  “ that  the 
laws  of  the  Union  be  faithfully  executed  in  all  the  States.” 

It  dwelt  with  singular  tenderness  on  the  cherished  convictions 
of  the  South,  lovingly  pointed  out  the  superiority  of  lawful  amity 
to  unlawful  violence,  entreated  the  malcontents  to  pause  ; and 
closed  his  appeal  to  their  better  nature  in  these  words : “In 
your  hands,  my  dissatisfied  countrymen,  and  not  in  mine,  is  the 
momentous  issue  of  civil  war.  The  Government  will  not  assail 
you.  You  can  have  no  conflict  without  being  yourselves  the 
aggressors.  You  have  no  oath  registered  in  Heaven  to  destroy 
the  Government,  while  I shall  have  the  most  solemn  one  to 
4 preserve,  protect,  and  defend  it.’  ” 

The  answer  to  the  Message  on  the  part  of  the  South  was  the 
opening  of  fire  from  the  Confederate  forts  and  batteries  April  u, 
on  Fort  Sumter,  resulting  in  its  surrender  by  major  1861 
Anderson.  This  was  the  signal  of  war.  On  the  day  following 
the  evacuation  of  the  fort,  Lincoln  issued  a requisition  for 

75.000  troops  for  the  suppression  of  the  insurrection,  and  the 
people  of  the  North  responded  by  sending  a volunteer  force  of 

300.000  men. 

The  whole  country,  North  and  South,  was  in  arms.  Three 
days  after  the  proclamation  for  troops,  Lincoln  issued  another 
proclamation  declaring  the  ports  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas  to  be 
blockaded;  other  war  measures  were  taken,  an  extra  session 
of  Congress  was  convened,  in  which  all  the  acts  of  the  presi- 
dent referred  to  were  approved  and  legalized,  and  abundant 
means  were  furnished  him  for  the  conduct  of  the  war. 

Towards  the  close  of  this  year,  thanks  to  the  indefatigable 
energy  and  wise  administration  of  the  Executive,  the  insurrec- 
tion had  been  concentrated,  a large  military  force  pressed  upon 


278 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


it  from  the  North  and  the  West,  and  an  imposing  naval  force 
maintained  a vigilant  blockade  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

The  military  exploits  of  the  second  year  of  the  contest  were 
brilliant  on  both  sides.  The  South  could  point  to  the  victories 
of  Jackson  in  the  Shenandoah,  of  Lee  on  the  Peninsula,  to 
Bragg’s  raid  in  Kentucky,  and  to  the  battles  of  Cedar  Moun- 
tain, Chickasaw  Bluff,  and  Fredericksburg. 

But  the  Federal  successes  far  eclipsed  the  achievements  of 
the  brave  and  heroic  foe.  There  was  a simultaneous  movement 
from  different  sides.  The  operations  of  Farragut  had  opened 
the  Mississippi ; Grant  and  Foote  had  captured  Forts  Henry 
and  Donelson,  and  Island  No.  10  ; Kentucky  and  Western  Ten- 
nessee had  been  recovered  to  the  Union  ; captain  Worden’s 
Monitor  had  discomfited  the  Merrimac;  general  McClellan  had 
turned  the  tide  of  the  war  in  Virginia  in  the  sanguinary  battle 
at  Antietam  ; and  Burnside  in  a series  of  dashing  engagements 
had  secured  to  the  Union  the  coast  of  North  Carolina. 

Lincoln,  who  had  unbounded  faith  in  the  ultimate  success  of 
the  cause  of  the  Union,  a large  heart  full  of  tender  yearnings 
for  the  people  of  the  South,  and  maintained  an  even  and  cheer- 
ful frame  of  mind  in  the  darkest  days  of  the  dreadful  fratricidal 
war,  was  wont  to  draw  on  a seemingly  inexhaustible  fund  of 
anecdotes,  and  to  settle  perplexing  questions  by  something  that 
reminded  him  of  something  else.  His  readiness  in  this  respect 
was  something  like  Franklin’s,  with  whom  he  had  not  a few 
things  in  common.  An  inquisitive  visitor  asked  too  many 
questions  about  the  destination  of  Burnside’s  expedition.  “ My 
friend,”  said  the  president,  u can  you  keep  a secret?  ” u Yes, 
sir  ! ” was  the  answer.  “ Then,”  rejoined  the  chief  magistrate, 
‘ ‘ I will  venture  to  inform  you  that  the  expedition  has  gone  to  sea.” 

A friend  of  the  writer  told  him  an  incident  that  happened  at 
a party  given  by  general  Marcy,  to  which  the  President  and  the 
Cabinet  had  been  invited.  In  the  course  of  the  evening  the 
prestidigitator  Hermann  was  introduced,  who  was  going  to  per- 
form some  of  his  tricks  with  cards.  He  took  a pack,  and,  pre- 


1862-1863] 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN . 


279 


seating  them  to  Mr.  Lincoln,  begged  him  to  shuffle  them. 
“ Oh,  no,”  said  the  President,  u hand  them  to  Mr.  Seward,  for 
he  does  all  my  shuffling.”  One  of  these  witty  sayings  is  apt  to 
remain  forever  associated  with  the  memory  of  Lincoln,  as  illus- 
trating the  shrewd  wisdom  acquired  by  him  in  the  olden  days 
in  the  Western  wilds,  which  taught  him  the  caution  u not  to 
swap  horses  in  the  middle  of  the  stream.” 

But  by  far  the  most  important  event  in  the  second  year  of 
the  war  was  the  Emancipation  Proclamation.  Lincoln  had  all 
along  nursed  his  favorite  measure  of  emancipation  with  com- 
pensation, which,  though  authorized  by  Congress,  proved  a 
failure  ; and  when  the  pressing  necessity  of  some  such  measure 
gradually  took  shape  in  his  mind,  he  resolved  to  make  the  free- 
dom of  the  slaves  a votive  offering  of  thanksgiving  to  God  for 
victory.  “ I made,”  he  said,  44  a solemn  vow  before  God,  that 
if  general  Lee  was  driven  back  from  Maryland,  I would  crown 
the  result  by  the  declaration  of  freedom  to  the  slaves.”  The 
battle  of  Antietam  decided  the  matter,  and,  on  the  sept.  22, 
Monday  following,  he  issued  the  proclamation,  declar-  1862 
ing  that  u on  the  first  day  of  January,  1863,  all  persons  held  as 
slaves  within  any  State  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States 
shall  be  then,  henceforth,  and  forever  free.” 

On  New  Year's  day,  emancipation  was  made  abso-  [I863 
lute  in  the  seceded  States,  and  the  proclamation  then 
issued  by  the  President  declared  that  all  persons  held  as  slaves 
44  are  and  henceforward  shall  be  free,”  and  concluded  with  the 
important  paragraphs  : — 

44  And  I further  declare  and  make  known  that  such  persons 
of  suitable  condition  will  be  received  into  the  armed  service  of 
the  United  States,  to  garrison  forts,  positions,  stations,  and 
other  places,  and  to  man  vessels  of  all  sorts  in  said  service. 

44  And  upon  this  act,  sincerely  believed  to  be  an  act  of  jus- 
tice, warranted  by  the  Constitution  upon  military  necessity,  I 
invoke  the  considerate  judgment  of  mankind  and  the  gracious 
favor  of  Almighty  God.” 


280 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


This  u military  necessity  ” was  disputed  by  the  political  oppo- 
nents of  the  Administration,  which  held  that  the  emancipation 
of  four  millions  of  slaves,  engaged  in  producing  the  staples 
which  upheld  the  insurrection,  was  a capital  blow  struck  at  the 
vitals  of  the  enemy,  who  without  the  products  of  such  labor 
could  not  possibly  maintain  the  continuance  of  a conflict  aimed 
at  the  overthrow  of  the  Union. 

Mr.  Lincoln,  while  urging  the  continuance  of  the  war  with 
unabated  vigor,  declined  the  overtures  of  mediation  made  by 
France  and  England,  obtained  the  leave  of  Congress  for  issuing 
letters  of  marque,  and,  for  the  purpose  of  replenishing  the  army 
by  draft,  all  persons  fit  for  military  service  between  the  ages  of 
20  and  45  had  to  be  enrolled  ; and  towards  the  close  of  the 
year,  he  issued  a proclamation  offering  a general  amnesty  to 
the  insurgents,  from  which  only  military  or  civil  leaders  were 
excepted. 

During  this  year  the  South  was  victorious  in  the  battles  of 
Chickamauga  and  Chancellorsville,  and  in  the  contest  for  the 
possession  of  Charleston,  but  the  Federal  operations  before 
Vicksburg,  the  Federal  triumphs  at  Chattanooga  and  at  Gettys- 
burg, told  with  terrible  effect  upon  the  sinking  fortunes  of  the 
Confederacy. 

Mr.  Lincoln  felt  that  though  the  material  strength  of  the 
Confederacy  had  been  incurably  impaired,  its  final  overthrow 
could  only  be  achieved  by  concerted  action,  and  it  was  for  this 
March  3,  purpose  that  general  Grant  was  made  lieutenant-gen- 
1864  eral  in  command  of  all  the  forces  of  the  United  States. 
So  effectual  were  his  efforts  that  at  the  close  of  the  year 
the  gigantic  contest  was  virtually  confined  to  Virginia,  and 
the  days  of  the  Confederacy  were  numbered.  Although  the 
conduct  of  the  war  was  sharply  criticized  in  the  North,  and 
every  effort  was  made  by  the  Democratic  party  to  prevent  his 
re-election,  his  hold  upon  the  confidence  and  affection  of  the 
people  was  too  strong  to  be  shaken.  The  result  was  an  over- 
whelming defeat  of  the  Democratic  candidate,  while  Mr.  Lin- 


1864-1865.] 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN. 


281 


coin  read  in  a popular  majority  of  more  than  400,000  votes 
the  approbation  of  his  fellow-citizens  of  his  conduct  of  the 
government  and  of  the  war  for  the  Union  ; and,  on  the  eve  of 
its  close,  could,  in  his  second  Inaugural  Address,  conclude  his 
review  of  the  mighty  struggle  in  the  familiar  words  : — 

“With  malice  towards  none,  with  charity  for  all,  with  firm- 
ness in  the  right,  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the  right,  let  us  strive 
to  finish  the  work  we  are  in,  — to  bind  up  the  nation’s  wounds, 
to  care  for  him  who  shall  have  borne  the  battle,  and  for  his 
widow  and  his  orphans ; to  do  all  which  may  achieve  and 
cherish  a just  and  lasting  peace  among  ourselves  and  with  all 
nations.” 

Meanwhile,  the  end  was  drawing  nigh.  Sherman  had  com- 
pleted his  victorious  march  through  the  Carolinas  and  effected 
a junction  with  Scofield  and  Terry  ; Sheridan  had  turned  the 
flank  of  Lee,  and  Grant  moved  upon  and  took  Rich-  April  3, 
mond,  which  was  occupied  by  colored  troops.  Lee  1865 
sought  to  effect  an  escape,  but  was  compelled  to  capitulate, 
with  the  remnant  of  his  army,  at  Appomattox  Court 
House. 

This  really  ended  the  war,  and  the  glorious  tidings  spread 
joy  over  all  the  land  ; the  bells  were  rung,  the  cannon  boomed, 
the  flag  waved  in  triumph,  cities  were  illuminated,  joy  was 
universal ; it  filled  every  heart,  but  none  more  than  Lincoln’s, 
who  had  gone  to  Richmond,  and  returned  safe  to  Washington, 
and,  in  the  kindness  of  his  heart,  consented  to  gratify  the 
people,  by  being  present  at  a representation  in  Ford’s  Theatre. 
He  sat  surrounded  by  his  family  and  friends  in  his  own  box. 
Suddenly  the  report  of  a pistol  was  heard ; a man,  waving  the 
weapon  and  shouting,  “ Sic  semper  tyrannis,”  leaped  on  the 
stage  and  made  his  escape.  He  had  shot,  and  shot  Apkil  14 
mortally,  Abraham  Lincoln,  the  best  and  most  loved 
of  all  presidents  since  Washington. 

The  assassin,  who,  in  the  frenzy  of  political  delusion,  thought 
he  was  ridding  the  world  of  a tyrant,  was  Wilkes  Booth,  one  of 


April  9. 


282 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.jD. 


a band  of  conspirators  who  had  plotted  to  kill  the  President 
and  all  the  leading  members  of  the  government.  At  the  time 
there  was  a widespread  belief  that  the  foul  deed  had  been  in- 
stigated by  the  Confederate  leaders,  but  fortunately  the  sus- 
picion was  never  proved. 

The  intelligence,  flashed  over  the  country  and  under  the  ocean, 
that  the  President  had  been  assassinated,  that  he  was  dying,  that 
he  was  dead,  seemed  too  incredible  to  be  true.  It  sent  a thrill 
of  horror  and  agony  through  the  nation.  In  a moment  the  voice 
of  joy  and  thanksgiving  was  hushed  in  deep,  unutterable  sorrow. 
Then  there  rose  a cry  of  lamentation  and  universal  grief. 

The  mourning  for  Lincoln  was  deep  and  sincere  ; it  drowned 
the  strife  of  party,  and  drew  words  of  sympathy,  not  only  from 
the  nations  of  the  earth,  but  from  the  States  so  lately  in  arms. 
Ilis  last  journey  had  been  to  Eichmond,  where  thousands  of 
the  liberated  Africans  crowded  round  his  carriage,  and  made 
the  welkin  ring  with  their  hosannas  for  the  sight  of  their 
deliverer.  “ Glory  to  God!”  “Bless  de  Lord!”  they  cried, 
in  the  exuberance  of  their  delight.  And  they  wept  now,  and 
mourned  for  him  more  than  for  a father. 

The  nation  felt  that  their  father  had  been  snatched  away. 
The  demonstration  of  grief  was  unexampled;  at  one  hour  on 
the  day  set  apart  for  the  funeral  service  at  Washington  similar 
services  were  held  throughout  the  land  ; his  body  was 

April  19.  & J 

borne  in  solemn  procession  to  Springfield,  a distance 
of  about  1,600  miles  over  the  same  route  he  had  chosen  when 
as  president-elect  he  had  come  to  Washington. 

Never  had  a king  such  a funeral,  accompanied  by  such  sin- 
cere and  heartfelt  mourning ; at  last  the  procession  reached  its 
destination,  and,  as  “ Father  Abraham  ” was  laid  to  rest,  his 
own  beautiful  prophecy  was  recalled  and  uttered,  that  the  time 
would  come  when  “the  mystic  chords  of  memory,  which  stretch 
from  every  battle-field  and  from  every  patriot’s  grave,  shall 
yield  a sweeter  music  when  touched  by  the  angels  of  our  better 
nature.” 


1865.] 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN . 


283 


One  of  the  most  touching  and  true  tributes  to  the  memory  of 
the  martyr-president,  as  he  was  called  at  the  time,  came  from 
the  Legislative  Body  of  France,  whose  minutes  contain,  among 
other  expressions,  these  words  : — 

44  Called  to  the  helm  of  the  ship  of  state  in  a crisis  of  im- 
perishable memory,  Abraham  Lincoln  sustained  himself  at  the 
height  of  his  difficult  task.  Invincibly  firm  throughout  the 
struggle,  the  wisdom  of  his  speech  and  views  seemed  to  mark 
him  as  destined  speedily  to  conduct  the  children  of  his  American 
mother-country  to  a salutary  and  lasting  reconciliation.  His 
last  acts  crowned  the  life  of  an  honest  man  and  of  a great 
citizen.” 

Add  to  this  that  his  honesty  lives  in  the  historical  sobriquet 
of  44  honest  Abe,”  and  the  love  which  the  people  bore  to  him 
in  the  familiar  and  endearing  epithets  of  44  Uncle  Abe”  and 
44  Father  Abraham”;  that  his  kindness  was  proverbial,  his 
ability  undoubted,  his  simplicity  and  modesty  unaffected,  that 
he  shone  as  a man,  as  a citizen,  and  as  a patriot ; and  such  a 
record  as  his  assigns  to  him  a place  in  history,  and  in  the  hearts 
of  his  countrymen,  only  second  to  that  of  Washington. 

The  hope  and  the  prophecy  of  Lincoln  have  been  fulfilled. 
The  Union  is  restored,  the  dark  and  terrible  days  of  the  frat- 
ricidal war  belong  to  the  distant  past,  and  the  flag  waves  in 
triumph  over  a united  people,  blessed  with  unexampled  pros- 
perity. May  it  be  perpetual. 

REFERENCES. 

The  several  Histories  of  the  United  States.  Holland  and  Raymond, 
“ Lincoln  and  for  Documents,  etc.,  44  The  Annual  Cyclopaedia.” 


284 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


1822-1885]  ULYSSES  S.  GRANT. 


1839] 


Hiram  Ulysses  Grant,  for  that  was  his  original  name,  was 
the  son  of  Jesse  R.  Grant,  a well-to-do  tanner,  who,  at  the  time 
April  27,  of  his  son’s  birth,  lived  at  Point  Pleasant,  Clermont 
1 822  County,  Ohio,  but  removed  a year  later  to  Georgetown, 
Brown  County,  in  the  same  State.  In  the  latter  place  the  future 
general  and  president  of  the  United  States  spent  his  youth, 
until,  at  the  age  of  17,  he  went  to  West  Point.  His 
schooling  there  was  of  a limited  character,  for  it  did 
not  extend  beyond  the  three  R’s,  as  they  are  sometimes 
called.  While  going  to  school,  where  he  acquired,  besides  the 
branches  just  named,  a familiarity  with  the  suasions  of  birch 
switches,  he  worked,  although  he  did  not  like  to  work,  on  the 
farm,  and  “ did  as  much  of  it,”  to  use  his  own  words,  while 
young,  “as  grown  men  can  be  hired  to  do  in  these  days.” 

This  fact,  and  his  repeated  assurance  that  he  could  not 
remember  to  have  “ been  punished  at  home,  either  by  scolding 
or  by  the  rod,”  seem  to  disprove  the  anecdote  that  his  mother, 
on  account  of  his  remissness  at  work,  was  wont  to  call  him 
“Useless”  instead  of  Ulysses.  Upon  his  appointment  to  West 
Point  his  name  was  wrongly  registered  “ Ulysses  S.,”  and  find- 
ing that  red-tape  interfered  with  the  correction,  he  submitted  to 
the  involuntary  change  as  his  “manifest  destiny”  and  signed 
it  “Ulysses  Simpson,”  the  latter  being  his  mother’s  family 
name.  The  initials  “ U.  S.,”  which  he  afterwards  used,  at 
subsequent  stages  of  his  life,  gave  rise  to  the  familiar  “Uncle 
Sam,”  “United  States,”  and  “Unconditional  Surrender”  Grant. 

His  record  at  West  Point  was  fair  but  not  brilliant, 
and  he  left  the  Academy  as  brevet  second  lieutenant 


1843] 


1822-1885.] 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT. 


285 


in  the  Fourth  Infantry.  While  stationed  at  Jefferson  Barracks 
he  became  engaged  to  Miss  Julia  Dent,  whom  he  married  four 
years  later.  At  that  time  Grant  intended  to  choose  the  scho- 
lastic profession,  and  applied  for  the  position  of  assistant-pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  at  West  Point,  but  the  outbreak  of  the 
Mexican  War  compelled  him  to  change  his  purpose.  He  served 
with  great  distinction,  was  promoted  first  lieutenant,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  death  of  his  senior,  lieutenant  Sidney  gEPT.  u, 
Smith,  who  was  mortally  wounded  on  entering  the  City 
of  Mexico.  Upon  the  close  of  the  war,  he  married, 
spent  two  years  in  garrison  at  Sackett’s  Harbor  and 
Detroit,  was  ordered  to  the  Pacific  coast,  where  he 
was  promoted  captain,  and  resigned. 

Returned  to  civil  life,  he  tried  his  hand  at  farming,  but  a 
severe  attack  of  fever  and  ague  induced  him  to  exchange 
agricultural  pursuits  for  the  conduct  of  a not  very  prosperous 
real-estate  agency  at  St.  Louis,  and  that  again  for  a rI860 
clerkship  in  his  father’s  store  at  Galena,  Illinois. 

When,  in  response  to  Mr.  Lincoln’s  call  for  75,000  men,  the 
citizens  of  Galena  raised  a company,  Grant  left  the  leather 
store,  drilled  the  men,  and  took  them  to  Springfield  to  be  mus- 
tered into  the  service  of  the  United  States.  Governor  Yates 
of  Illinois  invited  Grant  to  fill  a nondescript  position  in  the 
adjutant-general’s  office,  where  his  army  experience  would  be 
of  great  service.  He  became  mustering-officer  of  the  State 
troops,  and  was  successively  appointed  colonel  of  the  21st  regi- 
ment of  infantry,  and  brigadier-general.  His  first  act  was  the 
timely  seizure  of  Paducah,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee,  an 
important  position,  which,  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  who  was 
preparing  to  occupy  it,  might  have  been  very  injurious  to  the 
Federals.  The  prompt  and  circumspect  proceedings  of  Grant 
revealed  his  latent  powers.  In  the  battle  of  Belmont,  xov.  7, 
where  the  raw  and  undisciplined  volunteers  had  their  1861 
first  lesson  in  war,  the  personal  prowess  of  Grant  averted  a 
defeat. 


1847 

Aug.  22, 

1848 

[i  854 


286 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


The  Confederates  held  a strong  line  of  defence  from  Columbus, 
on  the  Mississippi,  to  Cumberland  Gap.  The  breaking  of  that 
line  was  a military  necessity,  and  its  execution  was  confided  to 
Grant,  who  undertook  to  capture  Fort  Henry  on  the  Tennessee, 
which  would  compel  the  evacuation  of  Columbus,  and  Fort 
Donelson,  on  the  Cumberland,  which  would  open  the  way  to 
Nashville. 

The  former  place  was  attacked  by  gunboats  and  readily 
taken,  but  the  troops  did  not  come  up  in  time  to  capture  the 
garrison,  which  Tilghman,  the  Confederate  commander,  had 
sent  to  Donelson  before  the  attack.  Tilghman,  his  staff,  and 
Feb.  6,  the  armament  of  the  fort  fell  into  the  hands  of  Grant, 
1862  who  ordered  the  pursuit  on  land,  while  the  gunboats, 
commanded  by  commodore  Foote,  were  directed  to  proceed 
down  the  Tennessee,  and  ascend  the  Cumberland  for  a com- 
bined attack  on  Fort  Donelson. 

The  post  was  well  chosen,  strongly  fortified,  and  garrisoned 
with  21,000  men.  Floyd,  the  quondam  Secretary  of  War  under 
Mr.  Buchanan,  who  for  more  than  a year  had  abused  his  high 
office  in  furnishing  the  South  the  means  of  armed  resistance, 
was  in  command  ; general  Pillow,  an  unskilful  but  vain  officer, 
his  second,  and  general  Buckner,  the  only  able  officer,  third  in 
rank. 

Grant’s  plan  was  to  hold  the  enemy  within  his  lines  by  the 
investing  army,  while  the  gunboats  should  attack  the  water 
batteries.  The  gunboats  opened  a vigorous  fire  on  the  fort, 
which  returned  it  with  skill  and  deadly  effect,  disabled  the  fleet, 
and  even  wounded  the  flag-officer.  The  enemy,  emboldened 
by  his  success  with  the  fleet,  on  the  next  day  took  the  offensive, 
but  was  driven  back  with  great  loss,  and  that  night  the  Federal 
division,  under  general  Smith,  bivouacked  within  the  Confed- 
erate lines. 

The  fate  of  Donelson  was  now  sealed ; during  the  night 
Floyd  and  Pillow  and  a portion  of  the  garrison  effected  their 
escape,  and  at  daybreak,  just  before  Grant  ordered  the 


1862.] 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT . 


287 


final  assault,  Buckner,  now  left  in  sole  command,  proposed  an 
armistice  of  several  hours  to  arrange  terms  of  capitulation. 
Grant  replied,  u No  terms  but  an  unconditional  and  immediate 
surrender  can  be  accepted.  I propose  to  move  immediately 
upon  your  works.”  Buckner  accepted  what  he  called 
“the  ungenerous  and  unchivalrous  terms,”  and  feb.  16, 
capitulated  with  about  15,000  men.  These  splendid  1862 
achievements  led  to  the  evacuation  of  Columbus,  Bowling 
Green,  and  Nashville. 

The  superior  strategy  of  Grant  in  the  battles  of  Shiloh,  Iuka, 
and  Corinth  met  hardly  any  official  recognition,  but  ri vetted 
the  attention  of  the  whole  countiy,  and  of  military  critics  in 
Europe  on  the  brilliant  series  of  operations  which  culminated  in 
the  capture  of  Vicksburg.  The  objects  to  be  gained  were  the 
unobstructed  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  sundering 
of  the  Confederacy. 

The  approaches  to  that  natural  stronghold,  rendered  nearly 
impregnable  by  formidable  works  of  enormous  extent,  presented 
difficulties  and  obstacles  of  the  most  forbidding  character  to  an 
ordinary  commander,  but  could  not  deter  Grant  from  his  pur- 
pose, at  any  cost,  and  under  all  circumstances,  to  recover  this 
Gibraltar  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  Union. 

After  weeks  of  unavailing  effort  to  take  the  place  from  the 
north,  Grant  concluded  to  attempt  it  from  the  south ; for  this 
purpose  a large  body  of  troops  was  sent  down  the  western 
side  of  the  river,  while  the  gunboats,  convoying  a flotilla  of 
steamers  and  barges,  loaded  with  rations  and  forage,  and 
destined  to  carry  the  army  across,  46  ran  the  batteries  ” which 
commanded  the  river  for  a distance  of  over  15  miles. 

In  order  to  capture  Grand  Gulf,  the  army  was  taken  across 
the  river  at  Bruinsburg,  met  the  enemy,  who  had  come  out  to 
prevent  that  capture,  at  Port  Gibson,  and  defeated  may  i, 
him.  That  victory  secured  to  Grant  not  only  Port  1863 
Gibson,  but  Grand  Gulf.  Advised  that  Joseph  E.  Johnston 
was  hastening  to  Pemberton’s  assistance,  Grant  resolved  to 


288 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


place  his  army  between  them,  44  drive  eastward  the  weaker  one, 
attack  and  beat  Gregg  . . . and  seize  Jackson,”  50  miles  east 
of  Vicksburg,  at  the  junction  of  the  railroads  by  which  that 
stronghold  was  supplied,  and  meanwhile  push  Pemberton  into 
Vicksburg,  where  completely  44  isolated  from  the  would-be 
Confederacy,”  he  meant  to  capture  the  whole  of  his  army. 

This  daring  and  extensive  programme  was  triumphantly 
accomplished  in  20  days,  during  which  the  two  hostile  armies 
had  been  beaten  in  detail  in  five  battles  with  great  loss,  and 
the  victorious  general  then  ordered  a general  attack  on  the 
defences  of  Vicksburg. 

The  assault  was  made,  but  did  not  succeed,  and  the  regular 
siege  began.  A double  line  of  defence  had  to  be  constructed, 
one  15  miles  long  facing  Vicksburg,  and  another  facing  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  check  the  approach  of  Johnston,  who  was 
hastening  to  the  relief  of  Pemberton. 

After  a month’s  incessant  work  with  the  pick  and  spade, 
and  after  a sap  had  been  run  to  the  enemy’s  parapet,  order 
was  given  to  spring  the  mine.  It  was  exploded 

J UNE  25* 

with  the  effect  that  the  top  of  the  hill  was  blown  off, 
and  a crater  formed.  The  front  blown  off  with  everything,  and 
everybody  on  it,  was  lifted  into  the  air  to  an  altitude  of  about 
80  feet.  Incredible  as  it  seems,  general  Grant  mentions  that  a 
colored  man  who  had  been  under  ground  at  work,  landed  on  the 
Union  side,  u not  much  hurt,  but  terribly  frightened.  Some 
one  asked  him  how  high  he  had  gone  up.  4 Dun  no,  massa,  but 
t’ink  ’bout  t’ree  mile,’  was  his  reply.” 

The  breach  was  kept  open  ; another  mine  was  exploded,  which 
destroyed  an  entire  redan  ; the  work  of  mining  continued  with 
unabated  vigor,  and  the  Union  approaches  had  reached  the 
enemy’s  ditch  at  many  points. 

Nothing  could  save  the  city,  and  Pemberton,  despairing  of 
outside  relief,  and  half-starved,  sued  for  terms  of  capitulation. 
He  obtained  from  the  generosity  of  the  humane  commander, 
and  not  44  from  the  vanity  of  our  foes,”  as  Pemberton  put  it, 


1863.] 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT . 


289 


honorable  and  excellent  terms,  and  on  the  morning  of  July  4th, 
the  enemy,  numbering  31,600  men,  marched  out  from  Vicks- 
burg, stacked  their  arms,  and  returned  without  them,  prisoners 
of  war  until  paroled.  The  victory  was  complete,  and  the  news 
of  that  4th  of  July  elated  the  nation  with  grateful  joy. 

The  President,  who,  when  urged  by  politicians  to  remove 
Grant,  rid  himself  of  the  pressure  with  the  quaint  words : 
“ I rather  like  the  man.  I think  we’ll  try  him  a little  longer,” 
had  good  cause  for  rejoicing  in  his  excellent  judgment ; he  too 
had  thought  Grant  was  blundering,  but  when  he  received  this 
crowning  proof  of  his  generalship,  he  wrote,  “I  now  wish  to 
make  a personal  acknowledgment  that  you  were  right,  and  I 
was  wrong.” 

Even  Halleck,  so  slow  and  loth  to  do  justice  to  Grant, 
wrote  this  tribute  : “ In  boldness  of  plan,  rapidity  of  execution, 
and  brilliancy  of  routes,  these  operations  will  compare  most 
favorably  with  those  of  Napoleon  about  Ulm.  You  and  your 
army  have  well  deserved  the  gratitude  of  your  country,  and  it 
will  be  the  boast  of  your  children  that  their  fathers  were  of  the 
heroic  army  which  reopened  the  Mississippi  River.” 

The  immediate  official  recognition  of  Grant  was  his  advance 
to  the  grade  of  major-general  in  the  regular  army. 

Placed  in  command  of  the  newly  created  military  division  of 
the  Mississippi,  Grant  earned  new  laurels  in  the  Chattanooga 
campaign,  and  concluded  a series  of  splendid  engagements  in 
the  magnificent  victory  over  the  Confederates,  already  worsted 
by  Thomas  at  Orchard  Knob,  and  by  Hooker  chased  “ in  the 
battle  above  the  clouds  ” from  Lookout  Mountain,  in  the  grand 
charge  of  Missionary  Ridge. 

The  battle  of  Chattanooga,  carried  out  according  to  the  pro- 
gramme, minutely  planned  and  directed  by  Grant,  is  perhaps 
the  proudest  monument  of  his  military  genius,  which  dislodged 
the  enemy  from  his  chosen  ground,  and  sent  him  utterly  routed, 
and  flying  in  hot  haste  towards  Virginia.  This  skill  which 
already  had  caused  the  mighty  father  of  waters  to  roll  in  all  its 


290 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


mighty  length  u unvexed  ” to  the  sea,  now  opened  at  Chatta- 
nooga the  gate  to  the  heart  of  the  Confederacy. 

By  this  time  the  undoubted  ability  of  Grant  marked  him  as 
the  person  best  fitted  to  assume  the  control  and  direct  she 
movements  of  all  the  armies  of  the  United  States.  The  grade 
March  3,  of  lieutenant-general  was  revived  and  conferred  upon 
1864  Grant,  who,  honored  with  the  unbounded  confidence  of 
the  Executive,  of  Congress,  and  the  whole  Nation,  accepted  the 
trust,  saying  to  the  President : — 

u I accept  the  commission  with  gratitude  for  the  high  honor 
conferred.  With  the  aid  of  the  noble  armies  that  have  fought 
on  so  many  fields  for  our  common  country,  it  will  be  my  earnest 
endeavor  not  to  disappoint  your  expectations.  I feel  the  full 
weight  of  the  responsibilities  now  devolving  upon  me,  and  I 
know  that  if  they  are  met,  it  will  be  due  to  those  armies,  and 
above  all,  to  the  favor  of  that  Providence  which  leads  both 
nations  and  men.” 

Then  he  laid  his  plans  for  the  final  overthrow  of  the  tottering 
Confederac}7.  The  writer  recalls  an  illustration  of  that  plan, 
communicated  to  him  at  the  time  by  a distinguished  senator. 
General  Grant,  having  been  importuned  for  a disclosure  of  his 
purposes,  made  no  oral  reply,  but  raising  his  arm  presented 
his  right  hand  with  the  five  fingers  stretched  out,  then  bending 
the  fingers,  slowly  brought  them  together  at  one  point. 

That  was  his  plan  ; he  proposed  to  drive  all  the  insurgent 
armies  towards  one  centre,  encircle  it  with  the  impenetrable  iron 
strength  of  the  Federal  hosts,  and  compel  submission. 

There  were  then  virtually  but  two  Confederate  armies,  that 
of  Johnston  in  the  West,  and  Lee’s  in  Virginia ; to  drive  in, 
capture,  or  annihilate  the  former  was  the  task  committed  to 
Sherman,  and  to  mete  out  the  same  fate  to  the  latter  was  the 
work  assumed  by  Grant.  Sherman  pushed  Johnston  into  the 
intrenchments  of  Atlanta,  and  when  that  general  was  displaced 
by  Hood,  repulsed  the  latter,  compelled  him  to  evacuate  Atlanta, 
and  secured  Georgia.  Hood  was  snared  into  Tennessee,  where 


1864-1865.] 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT . 


291 


at  the  battle  of  Nashville,  his  army  was  destroyed  by  general 
Thomas.  Sherman,  assured  that  Hood  would  be  cared  for  in 
Tennessee,  set  fire  to  Atlanta  and  swept  with  his  army  of 
60,000  men  through  the  heart  of  the  Confederacy,  to  Savannah, 
300  miles  away. 

Meanwhile,  Grant  had  fought  his  way,  with  dreadful  loss  of 
life,  into  Virginia,  and,  after  sundry  ineffectual  efforts  to  cap- 
ture Richmond,  had  gradually  encompassed  that  city  with 
armies,  ready  to  move  at  the  appointed  time,  which  was  de- 
layed until  the  spring  of  the  ensuing  year,  when  the  victorious 
legions  of  Sherman  had  reached  Goldsboro’. 

Then  a general  order  was  issued,  and  the  operations  were 
so  successful,  that  within  four  days  the  city  of  Richmond  was 
taken,  and  Lee,  hotly  pursued  by  Grant,  and  stayed  in  his 
progress  by  Sheridan,  was  forced  to  surrender  his  army,  April  9, 
which  had  been  reduced  by  constant  losses  to  8,000  men.  1865 

This  ended  the  war.  The  terms  he  accorded  to  Lee  were 
generous  and  humane,  alike  honorable  to  his  head  and  heart. 
The  Confederates  were  put  on  their  parole,  the  officers  permitted 
to  retain  their  side-arms,  private  baggage,  and  horses,  and  all 
officers  and  men  promised  u not  to  be  disturbed  by  United 
States  authority  so  long  as  they  observe  their  parole  and  the 
laws  in  force  where  they  may  reside.”  After  the  papers  had 
been  signed,  Lee  said  he  had  forgotten  to  mention  that  many 
of  the  cavalry  and  artillery  horses  were  the  property  of  the 
men  in  charge  of  them.  Whereupon  Grant  replied:  “I  will 
instruct  my  paroling  officers  that  all  the  enlisted  men  of  your 
cavalry  and  artillery  who  own  horses  are  to  retain  them,  just  as 
the  officers  do  theirs.  They  will  need  them  for  their  spring 
ploughing  and  other  farm  work.” 

It  is  said  that  after  the  war  general  Grant  heard  that  Mr. 
Stanton  had  issued  writs  for  the  arrest  of  general  Lee  and 
other  Southern  leaders,  and  went  to  ask  him  if  he  had  been 
correctly  informed.  Mr.  Stanton  replied  he  had.  General 
Grant  protested  against  the  action,  saying,  u When  general  Lee 


292 


MODERN  HISTORY . * 


[A.D. 


surrendered  to  me  at  Appomatox  Court  House,  I gave  him  my 
word  of  honor  that  neither  he  nor  any  of  his  followers  would 
be  disturbed  so  long  as  they  obeyed  their  parole  of  honor.  I 
have  learned  nothing  to  cause  me  to  believe  that  any  of  my  late 
adversaries  have  broken  their  promises,  and  have  come  here  to 
make  you  aware  of  the  fact,  and  would  also  suggest  that  those 
orders  be  cancelled/ 9 The  secretary  resented  the  interference, 
and  not  without  angry  haughtiness  replied  : u General  Grant, 
are  3-011  aware  whom  3Tou  are  talking  to  ? 1 am  the  secretary  of 

war.” 

“ And  I,”  rejoined  Grant,  u am  general  Grant.  Issue  those 
orders  at  your  peril.”  He  left  the  secretary,  and  the  secretary 
did  not  issue  his  orders. 

Grant  was  very  friendly  to  the  South,  and  had  his  advice 
been  taken  b}T  the  Southern  leaders,  their  rehabilitation  would 
have  taken  place  much  sooner.  His  magnanimity  in  this  par- 
ticular respect  appears  even  in  his  official  report,  where,  after 
a eulogium  on  the  grand  achievements  of  the  several  armies 
of  the  Union,  he  writes  : — 

“ All  have  a proud  record,  and  all  sections  can  well  congrat- 
ulate themselves  and  each  other  for  having  done  their  full  share 
in  restoring  the  supremacy  of  law  over  every  foot  of  territory 
belonging  to  the  United  States.  Let  them  hope  for  perpetual 
peace  and  harmony  with  that  enemy  whose  manhood,  however 
mistaken  the  cause,  drew  forth  such  herculean  deeds  of  valor.” 

The  cruel  assassination  of  the  beloved  and  tender-hearted 
president  Lincoln  was  an  awful  shock  to  general  Grant,  who 
received  the  terrible  news  at  Philadelphia.  He  had  been  pres- 
ent at  the  Cabinet  meeting  held  in  the  morning  of  that  sad 
day,  and  refused  the  president's  invitation  to  accompany  him  to 
the  theatre  in  the  evening,  where  the  people,  and  doubtless  the 
assassins,  expected  him.  His  departure  spoiled  their  plan,  and 
probably  saved  his  life,  for  it  was  remembered  that  the  infa- 
mous Booth  galloped  past  his  carriage  and  looked  in  at  the 
window. 


1869-1877.] 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT. 


293 


He  returned  instantly  to  Washington,  and  gave  his  hearty 
support  to  president  Johnson,  doubtless  to  the  amazement  of 
despotic  critics  abroad,  to  whom  the  spectacle  of  a victorious 
and  popular  general,  commanding  a million  of  men,  submitting 
to  constitutional  order  and  law,  must  have  been  a new  lesson 
in  history. 

In  recognition  of  the  eminent  services  rendered  by  Grant  and 
Sherman,  Congress  conferred  upon  the  former  the  grade  of 
General  of  the  Army  of  the  United  States,  a position  which  had 
never  been  held  by  an  American  officer  except  Washington  ; 
and  upon  the  latter  the  grade  of  Lieutenant-general.  Pending 
president  Johnson’s  difficulties  with  Mr.  Stanton,  general  Grant, 
much  against  his  inclination,  held  the  office  of  Secretary  of  War 
ad  interim  for  the  space  of  five  months. 

Nominated  by  the  Republican  party  for  president,  general 

Grant  was  elected  to  that  high  office,  and  served  r 

° 7 1869- 1877 

two  terms.  The  leading  events  of  his  adminis- 
tration were  : the  opening  of  the  Pacific  Railroad  ; the  adoption 
of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  which  guaran- 
tees to  all  citizens  the  right  of  suffrage,  irrespective  of  “ race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude”;  the  “ Treaty  of 
Washington/’  and  the  settlement  by  an  international  board  of 
arbitrators  of  the  “Alabama  Claims,”  as  well  as  the  rectifica- 
tion of  the  north-western  boundary  between  the  United  States 
and  British  America  by  the  decision  of  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, the  chosen  arbitrator,  and  the  Apology  by  Spain  for  the 
insult  offered  the  flag  of  the  United  States  in  the  treatment  of 
the  Virginius. 

During  his  second  term  there  were  outbreaks  of  the  Modoc 
and  Sioux  Indians,  which  were  speedily  checked ; the  recon- 
struction of  the  South,  temporarily  interrupted  by  the  Louisiana 
complication,  made  satisfactory  progress  ; the  president  vetoed 
the  bill  for  the  increase  of  the  national  currency,  and  opened 
the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia.  His  first  term  of 
office  was  marked  by  unexampled  prosperity  of  the  country, 


294 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


[A.D. 


and  his  second  by  a reaction,  which  led  to  a financial  crisis, 
caused  by  luxurious  extravagance,  over-production,  and  ex- 
cessive speculation. 

A calm  and  unprejudiced  review  of  the  eight  years  which 
general  Grant  spent  at  the  White  House  compels  the  verdict 
that  he  was  an  able  and  patriotic  ruler,  whose  firmness  and 
high  sense  of  duty  and  honor  restored  peace  and  honor  at  home 
and  made  the  United  States  respected  and  honored  abroad. 

The  extent  and  degree  to  which  his  military  and  civil  acts 
had  accomplished  the  latter  found  the  most  striking  expres- 
sion in  the  reception  accorded  to  general  Grant  on  his  tour 
round  the  world. 

Honors  and  distinctions  were  showered  upon  him  by  all 
classes  and  conditions  of  men,  from  the  occupants  of  the  proud- 
est thrones  to  the  hardy  sons  of  toil.  The  prince  of  Wales 
welcomed  him  ; queen  Victoria  received  him  and  Mrs.  Grant  as 
her  guests  at  Windsor  Castle  ; the  cities  of  London,  Edinburgh, 
and  Glasgow  tendered  to  him  their  freedom  ; at  Cairo,  he  was 
royally  entertained  by  the  khedive  ; at  Constantinople,  the  sul- 
tan gave  him  a warm  reception ; at  Home,  pope  Leo  XIII.  and 
king  Humbert  extended  to  him  kindly  greetings;  at  Berlin, 
where  the  illness  of  the  king,  whose  life  had  been  attempted, 
prevented  a personal  interview,  he  had  a most  cordial  meet- 
ing with  Bismarck ; at  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna,  and  Madrid, 
he  was  received  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Spain. 

Leaving  Europe,  the  colonial  representatives  of  Great  Britain, 
English  residents,  and  the  native  population,  as  well  as  Indian 
princes,  united  in  honoring  the  American  general  and  his  friends. 
The  king  of  Siam  placed  a palace  at  his  disposal ; at  Canton, 
the  Chinese  viceroy  had  prepared  the  people  for  the  advent  of 
“ the  king  of  America  ” ; and  at  Pekin,  the  prince  Kung,  then 
only  seven  years  old,  gave  him  imperial  welcome.  At  Tokio, 
the  mikado  received  general  Grant  with  singular  warmth,  who, 
honored  more  than  any  other  American  before  him,  sailed  home 


1869-1877.] 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT. 


295 


to  meet  an  enthusiastic  welcome,  which  was  an  uninterrupted 
ovation  from  San  Francisco  to  Philadelphia.  At  the  banquet 
tendered  him  at  Chicago  by  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  he 
spoke  of  his  travels,  and  also  of  the  South. 

Of  the  former  he  said:  “ Everywhere,  from  England  to 
Japan,  from  Russia  to  Spain  and  Portugal,  we  are  understood, 
our  resources  highly  appreciated,  and  the  skill,  energy,  and  in- 
telligence of  the  citizens  recognized.  My  receptions  have  been 
your  receptions.  They  have  been  everywhere  kind,  and  an 
acknowledgment  that  the  United  States  is  a nation,  a strong, 
independent,  and  free  nation,  composed  of  strong,  brave,  and 
intelligent  people,  capable  of  judging  of  their  rights,  and  ready 
to  maintain  them  at  all  hazards.” 

Adverting  to  the  war,  and  the  purport  of  the  society  of  sol- 
diers he  was  addressing,  continued:  “ They  [the  meetings]  do 
not  serve  to  keep  up  sectional  feeling  or  bitterness  towards  our 
late  foe,  but  they  do  keep  up  the  feeling  that  we  are  a nation, 
and  that  it  must  be  preserved  one  and  indivisible.  We  feel 
and  maintain  that  those  who  fought,  and  fought  bravely,  on 
the  opposite  side  from  us  have  equal  claim  with  ourselves  in  all 
the  blessings  of  our  great  and  common  country.  ...  We  . . . 
would  rejoice  to  see  them  become  powerful  rivals  in  the  devel- 
opment of  our  great  resources,  in  the  acquisition  of  all  that 
should  be  desirable  in  this  life,  and  in  patriotism  and  in  love  of 
country.” 

General  Grant’s  tour  through  the  South,  made  in  1880,  did 
much  good  in  the  promotion  of  cordiality,  and  the  burial  of 
forgotten  or  superannuated  feuds,  and  his  visit  to  Cuba  and 
Mexico  was  advantageous  to  the  commercial  interests  of  the 
country.  Upon  his  return,  general  Grant  made  the  house  in 
New  York  City  , which  friends  had  bought  and  presented  to  his 
wife,  his  permanent  home. 

Owing  to  the  dishonest}’  of  the  trusted  but  unworthy  partner 
of  his  sons,  the  last  years  of  his  life  were  clouded  by  sorrow, 
pecuniary  losses,  and  embarrassment.  Friends  came  to  his  aid, 


296 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


[A.D. 


notably  the  late  Mr.  W.  H.  Vanderbilt,  who  had  loaned  to  him 
the  sum  of  $150,000,  and  was  willing  to  cancel  the  obligation 
but  for  the  general’s  opposition,  who  insisted  that  his  personal 
property,  including  the  presents  lie  had  received  on  his  tour 
round  the  world,  should  be  applied  to  the  payment  of  the  debt. 
The  formality  of  a levy  was  gone  through  with,  and  the  prop- 
erty thus  acquired  Mr.  Vanderbilt  proposed  to  present  to  Mrs. 
Grant.  But  the  general  would  not  consent  to  the  arrangement, 
and  it  was  finally  agreed  that  the  property  in  question  should 
remain  in  Mrs.  Grant’s  possession  during  his  life,  and  after  his 
death  pass,  as  a gift  to  the  nation,  to  the  custody  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institute  at  Washington. 

It  is  pleasing  to  record  that  senator  Logan’s  bill,  placing 
Jan.  ii,  general  Grant  on  the  retired  list,  with  the  rank  and 
pay  of  a general  of  the  army,  which  failed  to  pass  at 
the  time  of  its  introduction,  became  law  not  long  before  his 
death. 

A long  and  painful  disease  baffled  the  physicians’  skill,  which 
might  abate  the  violence  of  his  sufferings,  and  prolong  his 
slender  hold  on  life,  but  could  not  eradicate  the  incurable  evil 
or  stay  the  hand  of  death.  During  that  sickness  he  wrote  and 
completed  at  Mount  McGregor  the  u Personal  Memoirs,”  from 
whose  sale  he  hoped,  and  hoped  not  in  vain,  for  returns  which 
would  secure  to  his  family  a competence.  Throughout  his  long 
sickness,  the  heart  of  the  whole  country  went  out  to  the  loved 
sufferer,  and  watched,  as  it  were,  at  his  bedside.  This  sympa- 
thy was  unspeakably  precious  to  him.  “ It  has  been  an  inestima- 
july  2,  ble  blessing  to  me,”  he  wrote  to  Dr.  Douglass  three 
1885  weeks  before  his  death,  “to  hear  the  kind  expressions 
toward  me  in  person  from  all  parts  of  our  country,  from  people 
of  all  nationalities,  of  all  religions  and  of  no  religion,  of  Con- 
federate and  of  National  troops  alike.  . . . They  have  brought 
joy  to  my  heart,  if  they  have  not  effected  a cure.” 

A message  to  his  wife,  found  on  his  person  after 
death,  contained  this  touching  charge:  “Look  after 


1881-1885.] 


ULYSSES  S.  GRANT. 


297 


our  clear  children,  and  direct  them  in  the  paths  of  rectitude. 
It  would  distress  me  far  more  to  think  that  one  of  them  could 
depart  from  an  honorable,  upright,  and  virtuous  life,  than  it 
would  to  know  they  were  prostrated  on  a bed  of  sickness  from 
which  they  were  never  to  arise  alive.” 

Universally  beloved  and  loving,  free  from  pain,  he  died  at 
Mount  McGregor  on  the  morning  of  July  23. 

The  sad  but  expected  intelligence  was  a sorrow  to  every 
heart.  The  mourning  was  universal ; messages  of  condolence 
came  in  almost  countless  number  from  every  part  of  the  land, 
and  from  many  sovereigns  in  Europe  and  Asia.  His  body  was 
embalmed,  and  lay  in  state  at  the  City  Hall  in  New  York  for 
three  days. 

His  funeral  was  magnificent ; the  funeral  car,  drawn  ^UG  g 
by  24  black  horses,  each  led  by  a negro,  received 
the  casket;  among  the  12  pall-bearers  were  generals  Sherman 
and  Joe  Johnston,  generals  Sheridan  and  Buckner  ; among  the 
mourners  were  president  Cleveland  and  ex-presidents  Hayes 
and  Arthur ; the  funeral  procession  was  the  most  imposing 
ever  seen  in  America,  and  consisted  of  three  grand  divisions, 
a military  escort,  a veteran  cortege,  and  a civic  division, 
numbering  about  50,000  men  in  line,  which  moved  through  the 
densely  crowded  streets  of  the  great  city,  draped  in  mourning, 
past  a multitude  of  deeply  affected  spectators,  estimated  at  not 
less  than  half  a million,  to  the  chosen  resting-place  in  Riverside 
Park. 

At  the  tomb,  surrounded  by  the  dignitaries  of  the  nation, 
there  was  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  war  in  military  salutes 
and  martial  music,  but  there  was  also  the  sweeter  sight  of  peace 
in  the  reunion  of  those  who  in  bv-gone  years  had  met  in  deadly 
conflict,  and  were  now  mingling  their  tears  over  the  brave  and 
patriotic  soldier  whom  they  laid  to  rest. 

A bugler  stepped  to  the  side  of  the  purple  casket,  and  rang 
out  the  notes  of  “Taps.”  A brief  service  followed,  and  at  its 
close  the  bugler,  with  tearful  eyes  and  tremulous  breath,  blew 


298 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


the  soft,  sad  notes  of  the  “ Rest”  ; a last  look  at  the  casket, 
on  which  the  grandchildren  of  the  departed  threw  their  flowers ; 
a gun  from  the  Alliance  was  fired  ; then  the  casket  was  raised 
and  carried  into  the  tomb,  and  enclosed  in  the  steel  casino: 

Thus  they  buried  Grant  at  Riverside ; but  throughout  the 
whole  country,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  in  and 
from  Canada  to  the  Gulf,  and  even  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
memorial  services  were  held,  and  glowing  tributes  paid  to  the 
great  and  good  man,  who,  under  God,  saved  his  country,  and, 
though  a warrior,  loved  peace  ; and  who,  could  he  have  witnessed 
his  own  funeral,  would  have  reiterated  the  touching  words  he 
wrote  to  Buckner,  when  his  voice  failed  him  to  utter  them : 
u We  may  now  well  look  forward  to  a perpetual  peace  at  home, 
and  a national  strength  that  will  screen  us  against  any  foreign 
complication.  I believe  myself  that  the  war  was  worth  all  it 
cost  us,  fearful  as  that  was.” 


REFERENCES. 

U.  S.  Grant,  “ Personal  Memoirs  ” ; Badeau,  “ Military  History  of 
General  Grant  ” ; Chesney,  “ Military  Biographies  ” ; Brown,  “ Life 
of  Ulysses  Simpson  Grant.” 


HISTORICAL  SURVEY. 


A.D.  1483. 

1517. 

1518. 

1520. 

1521. 


1522. 

1525. 

1530. 

1531. 


Nov.  10,  birth  of  Martin  Luther. 

Luther  posts  the  95  theses  upon  the  church  door  at  Wit- 
tenberg. 

Cardinal  Cajetan  summons  Luther  to  appear  before  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg. 

Luther  burns  the  pope's  bull,  etc.,  at  Wittenberg. 

The  Diet  at  Worms.  Luther  put  to  the  ban  of  the  em- 
pire. The  Wartburg. 

Luther  returns  to  Wittenberg. 

Luther  marries  Katharina  de  Bora. 

The  Augsburg  Confession. 

League  of  the  Protestant  princes  at  Smalcald. 


HISTORICAL  SURVEY. 


299 


A.D.  1533. 

1545. 

1546. 
1558. 
1563. 
1587. 


1588. 

1596. 

1599. 

1601. 

1603. 

1672. 

1682. 

1689. 

1696. 

1697. 

1698. 

1699. 

1700. 
1703. 
1706. 
1709. 

1711. 

1712. 
1718. 

1721. 

1725. 

1732. 

1740. 

1741. 

1742. 


Birth  of  queen  Elizabeth,  Sept.  7. 

The  Council  of  Trent  meets,  Dec.  13. 

Death  of  Luther,  Feb.  18. 

Elizabeth,  queen  of  England. 

The  39  Articles  authorized  by  Convocation. 

Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  beheaded  at  Fotheringay  Castle, 
Feb.  8. 

Drake  destroys  a Spanish  squadron  at  Cadiz. 

Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada. 

Capture  of  Cadiz. 

Essex  in  disgrace. 

Essex  is  beheaded,  Feb.  25. 

Death  of  queen  Elizabeth,  March  24. 

Birth  of  Peter  the  Great,  June  9. 

Ivan  and  Peter,  jointly  czars  of  Russia,  1682-1689. 
Sophia,  regent. 

Peter,  sole  czar  of  Russia,  cet . 17. 

Capture  of  Azof. 

The  czar  of  Russia  travels  incognito  through  Germany, 
Holland,  England,  etc. 

Insurrection  and  defeat  of  the  Strelitz  guards. 

Alliance  of  Russia,  Denmark,  and  Poland  against  Sweden. 
The  victory  of  Narva,  Nov.  30. 

Foundation  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Cronstadt. 

Birth  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

Charles  XII.  defeated  at  Pultowa. 

The  Russians  defeated  and  surrounded  by  the  Turks  on 
the  Pruth. 

Birth  of  Frederic  the  Great. 

Charles  XII.  is  killed  at  the  siege  of  Frederickshal, 
Nov.  30. 

Peace  of  Nystadt,  between  Sweden  and  Russia. 

Death  of  Peter  the  Great,  Jan.  28. 

Birth  of  George  Washington. 

Frederic  II.,  king  of  Prussia,  May  31.  He  invades  Silesia. 
Frederic  defeats  the  Austrians  at  Molwitz,  April  10. 
Maria  Theresa  crowned  at  Presburg,  J une  14. 

The  elector  of  Bavaria  chosen  emperor  as  Charles  VII. 
Peace  of  Breslau,  between  Austria  and  Prussia. 


300 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


A.D.  1744. 
1745. 


1748. 

1753. 

1754. 

1755. 

1756. 


1757. 


1758. 


1759. 


1760. 


1761. 


Beginning  of  King  George’s  War. 

Frederic  11.  captures  Prague. 

Peace  of  Dresden,  between  Austria,  Saxony,  Poland,  and 
Prussia. 

General  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Oct.  7. 

Washington  sent  to  St.  Pierre,  Oct.  31. 

Battle  of  Great  Meadows. 

Defeat  of  Braddock. 

The  Seven  Years’  War.  Alliance  of  England  with  Prus- 
sia, against  Austria  and  France. 

Montcalm  captures  Fort  Oswego,  Aug.  14. 

Victories  of  Frederic  II.  at  Lowositz  and  at  Pirna.  Seiz- 
ure of  Saxon  archives. 

Montcalm  takes  Fort  William  Henry,  Aug.  9. 

Frederic  victorious  at  Prague,  May  6 ; defeated  at  Kolin, 
June  18 ; the  Swedes  and  Russians,  allied  with  the  Aus- 
trians, invade  Prussia.  The  Russians  capture  Memel, 
and  win  the  battle  of  Gross  Jagerndorf,  Aug.  30.  Fred- 
eric defeats  the  French  at  Rossbach,  Nov.  5,  the  Aus- 
trians at  Leuthen,  Dec.  5,  and  regains  Silesia. 

Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  defeats  the  French  at  Crefeld, 
June  23. 

Abercrombie  repulsed  by  the  French  at  Ticonderoga, 
July  8. 

Amherst  and  Wolfe  take  Louisburg,  July  27. 

Forbes  captures  Fort  Duquesne,  Nov.  25. 

Frederic  II.  defeats  the  Russians  at  Zorndorf,  Aug.  25, 
but  is  defeated  by  Daun  at  Hochkirchen,  Oct.  14. 

Battle  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  Sept.  13.  Capture  of 
Quebec,  Sept.  18. 

The  Prussians  defeated  at  Ziillichau,  July  23,  at  Kunners- 
dorf,  Aug.  12,  and  at  Maxen,  Nov.  20. 

Frederic  defeated  by  Laudon  at  Landshut,  June  23 ; de- 
feats him  at  Liegnitz,  Aug.  15.  The  Austrians  and  Rus- 
sians capture  Berlin,  Oct.  9.  Frederic  defeats  Daun  at 
Torgau,  Nov.  3,  and  subdues  Saxony,  except  Dresden. 

Montreal  surrendered  to  the  English,  Sept.  18. 

Frederic,  now  on  the  defensive,  loses  Schweidnitz  and 
Colberg, 


HISTORICAL  SURVEY . 


301 


A.D. 


1762.  Frederic  defeats  Daun  at  Burkersdorf,  July  21,  and  re- 

takes Schweidnitz,  Oct.  9. 

1763.  Peace  of  Paris,  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain, 

Feb.  10. 

Peace  of  Hubertusburg,  between  Austria  and  Prussia, 
Feb.  15. 

1765.  The  Stamp  Act  passed,  March  22. 

1766.  The  Stamp  Act  repealed. 

1767.  Tax  imposed  on  tea,  etc.,  June  29. 

1769.  Birth  of  Arthur  Wellesley  (lord  Wellington),  May  1. 
Birth  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Aug.  15. 

1774.  First  Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia,  Sept.  5. 

1775.  Battle  of  Lexington,  April  19. 

Washington  elected  commander-in-chief,  June  15;  in  com- 
mand, July  2. 

Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June  17. 

1776.  Boston  evacuated,  March  17. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  July  4. 

1777.  Surrender  of  Burgoyne,  Oct.  17. 

1778.  American  independence  acknowledged  by  France.  Alli- 

ance between  France  and  the  United  States  concluded 
by  Franklin,  Feb.  6. 

1779.  Capture  of  Stony  Point  by  “Mad  Anthony,”  July  15. 

Paul  Jones’  victory,  Sept.  23. 

1780.  Battle  of  Camden,  Aug.  16.  Execution  of  Andre,  Oct.  2. 

1781.  Greene's  retreat,  January  and  February. 

Surrender  of  Cornwallis,  October  19. 

1783.  Treaty  of  Peace  between  England,  and  France,  Spain,  and 

the  United  States.  Preliminaries  signed,  Jan.  20;  de- 
finitive signature  at  Versailles,  Sept.  3. 

1784.  The  Treaty  of  Peace  ratified  by  Congress,  Jan.  14;  by 

the  king  of  England,  April  9. 

1786.  Death  of  Frederic  the  Great,  Aug.  17,  cet.  75. 

1787.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  adopted,  Sept.  17. 

1788.  The  Constitution  adopted  by  nine  States. 

1789.  George  Washington  inaugurated  first  President,  April  30. 

1790.  Death  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  April  17,  cet.  85. 

1793.  Louis  XVI.  guillotined,  Jan.  21.  First  Coalition  of  all 
Europe,  except  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Turkey,  against 
France. 


302 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


A.D.  1795. 

1796. 

1797. 


1798. 

1799. 


1800. 


1802. 


1803. 

1804. 

1805. 


1806. 


1807. 

1808. 

1809. 

1810. 
1812. 

1813. 


Revolt  of  the  Parisian  Sections  suppressed  by  Napoleon, 
Oct.  5. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte’s  first  campaign  in  Italy. 

John  Adams  inaugurated,  March  4. 

Napoleon’s  Austrian  Campaign.  Peace  of  Campo  For- 
mio,  between  Austria  and  France,  Oct.  17. 

Second  Coalition  against  France.  Napoleon  in  Egypt. 

Napoleon’s  campaign  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  Return  to 
France,  Oct.  9.  Elected  consul  for  10  years. 

Death  of  George  Washington,  Dec.  14,  cet.  67. 

Brilliant  campaign  of  Napoleon  in  Italy.  Great  St.  Ber- 
nard. Marengo,  June  14. 

Napoleon,  president  of  the  Italian  Republic,  January; 
consul  for  life,  August. 

Louisiana  purchased  from  France,  April  30. 

Napoleon  I.  proclaimed  emperor  of  the  French,  May  18. 
Coronation  at  Notre  Dame. 

Third  Coalition.  Nelson’s  victory  off  Trafalgar,  Oct.  21. 

Napoleon  defeats  Mack.  Capitulation  of  Ulrn,  Oct.  17. 
Capture  of  Vienna.  Grand  victory  at  Austerlitz,  Dec.  2. 
Peace  of  Presburg,  Dec.  27. 

Fourth  Coalition.  Establishment  of  Napoleon’s  federal 
tive  system. 

French  victories  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt.  Prohibition  of 
all  commerce  and  intercourse  with  British  subjects, 
Nov.  21. 

Dissolution  of  the  German  empire.  Francis  II.  assumes 
the  title  of  Francis  I.,  emperor  of  Austria,  Aug.  6. 

French  victory  at  Eylau  and  Friedland.  Peace  of  Tilsit, 
between  France,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  July  7. 

Napoleon  in  Spain,  November  and  December. 

Fifth  Coalition.  Wellington's  victory  at  Talavera,  July  28. 

Napoleon  in  Austria.  Peace  of  Vienna,  with  Austria, 
Oct.  11.  Divorce  of  the  empress  Josephine,  Dec.  16. 

Napoleon  marries  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,  April  2. 

Wellington  victorious  in  Spain.  Napoleon  invades  Rus- 
sia. Burning  of  Moscow.  Passage  of  the  Beresina. 

Sixth  Coalition  against  France.  Total  defeat  of  Napoleon 
at  Leipzig,  Oct,  16,  18,  19. 


HISTORICAL  SURVEY. 


303 


D.  1814.  The  Allies  in  Paris,  March  31.  Napoleon  abdicates, 
April  11 ; lands  at  Elba,  May  14. 

1815.  Napoleon  returns  from  Elba  to  Paris,  March  20.  The 
Hundred  Days.  Blucher  and  Wellington  victorious  at 
Waterloo,  June  18.  Second  abdication  of  Napoleon, 
June  22.  He  is  banished  to  St.  Helena,  and  lands 
there,  Oct.  17. 

1821.  Death  of  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,  May  4,  cet.  52. 

1857.  James  Buchanan  inaugurated,  March  4. 

1860.  Abraham  Lincoln  elected  president;  secession  of  South 

Carolina,  Dec.  20. 

1861.  Formation  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  Feb.  4. 

Abraham  Lincoln  inaugurated,  March  4. 

Fort  Sumter  bombarded,  April  12,  13.  First  call  for 
troops,  April  15.  The  Confederates  seize  Harper’s 
Ferry,  April  18,  and  the  Navy  Yard  at  Norfolk,  April  20. 
Battles  of  Bull  Bun,  July  21;  Ball’s  Bluff,  Oct.  21;  Port 
Boyal,  S.C.,  taken,  Nov.  7.  Battle  of  Belmont,  Mo., 
Nov.  7. 

1862.  Capture  of  Forts  Henry,  Feb.  6,  and  Donelson,  Feb.  16. 

Battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6,  7. 

Capture  of  New  Orleans,  April  25 ; of  Fort  Pulaski, 
April  11 ; surrender  of  Memphis,  June  6. 

Lee  invades  Maryland,  Sept.  5 ; and  is  defeated  at  South 
Mountain,  Sept.  14,  and  at  Antietam,  Sept.  17. 

Battles  of  Iuka,  Miss.,  Sept.  19;  Corinth,  Oct.  4;  Perry ville, 
Ky.,  Oct.  8. 

Slavery  abolished  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  April  1. 
President  Lincoln’s  First  Emancipation  Proclamation, 
Sept.  22. 

1863.  President  Lincoln’s  Second  Emancipation  Proclamation, 

Jan.  1. 

General  Grant’s  campaign  before  Vicksburg,  May  1-17. 
Battles  of  Chancellorsville,  May  2,  3;  battle  of  Gettys- 
burg, July  1-3. 

Surrender  of  Vicksburg,  July  4.  Battles  of  Chickamauga, 
Sept.  19,  20,  and  of  Chattanooga,  Nov.  24,  25. 

1864.  General  Grant  made  lieutenant-general,  March  3.  Battles 

before  Bichmond,  May  and  June. 


304 


MODERN  HISTORY . 


A.D.  1864. 


1865. 


1867. 


1868. 


1869. 

1870. 

1871. 
1873. 
1876. 
1885. 


Naval  fight  between  the  Alabama  and  the  Kearsarge  off 
Cherbourg,  June  20  ; the  Alabama  sunk. 

Battles  before  Atlanta,  July  20,  22,  28.  Farragut  in  Mo- 
bile Bay,  Aug.  5.  Atlanta  taken,  Sept.  2 ; Union  vic- 
tory at  Nashville,  Dec.  16.  March  of  Sherman  across 
Georgia,  and  capture  of  Savannah,  Dec.  21. 

President  Lincoln  re-elected,  November. 

March  of  Sherman  from  Savannah  to  Goldsboro’,  from 
January  to  March. 

Second  inauguration  of  president  Lincoln,  March  4. 

Capture  of  Petersburg  and  Bichmond,  April  2,  3. 

Lee  surrenders  to  Grant,  April  9. 

Assassination  of  president  Lincoln,  April  14. 

Andrew  Johnson,  president,  April  15. 

Capture  of  Jefferson  Davis,  May  11. 

Slavery  constitutionally  abolished,  in  virtue  of  the  13th 
Amendment,  Dec.  18. 

The  Freedman’s  Bureau  Bill  (July  16,  1866),  the  Civil 
Bights  Bill,  and  the  Tenure  of  Office  Bill,  passed  over 
the  president’s  veto,  March  2. 

Impeachment  (Feb.  24),  and  acquittal  of  president  John- 
son, May  26. 

Adoption  of  the  14th  Amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
July  28. 

Ulysses  S.  Grant  inaugurated,  March  4. 

Adoption  of  the  15th  Amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
March  30. 

Conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  Washington,  May  6. 

Second  inauguration  of  president  Grant. 

Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia  opened,  May  10. 

Death  of  General  Grant  at  Mount  McGregor,  July  23. 
Funeral  obsequies  at  New  York,  Aug.  8. 


IV. 

SELECT  PRONOUNCING  AND  EXPLANATORY 
VOCABULARY. 


IV. 

SELECT  PRONOUNCING  AND  EXPLANATORY 
VOCABULARY. 

MYTHOLOGICAL,  BIOGRAPHICAL,  GEOGRAPHICAL,  AND 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL. 

The  pronunciation  of  dead  languages  is  different  in  different  countries.  In  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  not  less  than  three  methods  of  Latin  alone  are  followed. 
The  so-called  English  method  which  for  several  centuries  has  prevailed  among  scholars 
of  English  speech  and  is  used  in  most  of  the  Standard  Dictionaries  of  English,  is  given 
in  this  Vocabulary,  which  for  convenience  conforms  generally  to  the  system  adopted  in 
“ Webster’s  Unabridged  Dictionary,”  edition  of  1885. 

From  the  “ Key”  to  the  pronunciation  of  English  words,  on  page  xl  of  that  work,  the 
following  synopsis  of  signs  has  been  mainly  drawn  up : — 

Synopsis. 

a,  e,  I,  o,  u,  y,  long,  as  in  fate,  mete,  fine,  note,  late,  sky. 
a,  e,  i,  o,  ii,  y,  short,  as  in  hat,  met,  hit,  not,  but,  nymph, 
a,  e,  6,  u,  as  in  share,  there,  stork,  burn, 
a,  o,  u,  as  in  wander,  wolf,  pull. 

а,  as  in  far ; a,  as  in  grass ; a,  as  in  talk ; ge,  as  e in  me ; a,  obscure, 
e,  as  in  obey ; e,  as  in  verge ; e,  obscure. 

i,  as  in  police ; i,  as  in  thirsty. 

б,  as  in  son;  o,  as  in  do ; do,  as  in  food;  do,  as  in  good;  o,  obscure, 
u after  r,  as  in  rude. 

e,  /,  o (Italic),  denote  a silent  letter,  as  fallen,  cous/n,  mason, 
g,  as  in  mer§y ; c,  as  in  call. 

ch  (unmarked),  as  in  much;  ^h,  as  in  machine;  -eh,  as  in  chasm. 

g,  as  in  get;  g,  as  in  gem. 

s (unmarked),  as  in  rest;  §,  as  in  ha§. 

th  (unmarked),  as  in  breath;  th,  as  in  though. 

ng  (unmarked),  as  in  sing;  n,  as  in  link;  x,  as  in  example. 

ph,  qu,  wh  (unmarked),  as  in  philosophy,  queen,  awhile. 

oi,  oy,  on,  ow  (unmarked),  as  in  join,  joy,  hound,  fowl. 

J 0®=*  Note.  All  words  not  classical  included  in  this  Vocabulary,  and  not  respelt  in 
Webster,  are  respelt  according  to  the  foregoing  Synopsis. 

The  Greek  and  Latin  Titles  are  given  so  as  to  exhibit  their  accentuation  and  separa- 
tion into  syllables. 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


308 


The  subjoined  Comparative  Table  exhibits  in  four  columns  the  Latin  letters  with 
their  English  equivalents,  according  to  the  three  methods  followed  in  the  pronunciation 
of  Latin  words  ; the  letters  noted  are  the  most  important. 

For  fuller  information  concerning  the  English  Method , see  Webster’s  Dictionary, 
p.  1653  sq.,  and  the  Grammar  of  Andrews  and  Stoddard ; concerning  the  Continental 
Method , the  Grammar  of  Zumpt,  and  more  recently  that  of  Gildersleeve,  on  the  basis  of 
Lattmann  and  Muller  ; concerning  the  Roman  Method , the  Grammar  of  Allen  and 
Greenough. 

COMPARATIVE  TABLE. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


LATIN  LETTERS. 


English  Equivalents,  according  to 


English  Method 
( Webster ) . 


Continental 

Method. 


Roman  Method. 


Vowels. 


A vowel  at  the  end  of  an  accent- 
ed syllable  is  long,  as  Ca'to, 
Ccf  crops,  DVdo,  So'lon, 
Cxi'unce,  Ty'rus.  Such  ac- 
cented vowels  correspond  to 
the  vowels  in 

E,  O,  U,  at  the  end  of  an  unac- 
cented syllable,  have .... 


fatal,  metre, 

> vital,  total, 
tutor,  tyrant ; 

r the  long  sound, 
< as  in  me,  note, 
^ lute ; 


father,  there, 
machine,  no, 
rude; 

the  long  sound, 
as  in  there, 
no,  lilte; 


same  as  in  Con- 
tinental Method. 


same  as  in  Con- 
tinental Method. 


Y,  same  as  I, 


long,  as  yin  sky ; 


A,  ending  an  unaccented  sylla- 
ble, 

I final  is  always  long,  except  in 
tib%f  sib'i ; 

I at  the  end  of  initial  unaccented 
syllables  varies  between  I and 
I; 


short,  as  y in 
nymph ; 
long,  as  a in 
father ; 
long,  as  i in 
mine; 
nearly  as  e in 
me,  or  i in  it ; 


long,  as  i in 
machine ; 1 
short,  as  y in 
nymph; 
the  same;* 

long,  as  i in 
machine ; 
the  same; 


j same  as  in 
} Continental 
j Method. 

the  same.* 

same  as  in  Con- 
tinental Method, 
the  same. 


Diphthongs. 
IE,  as  in  2Era  ; 

CE,  as  in  (Erta  ; 

Au,  as  in  Auflis  ; 

Eu,  as  in  JEn'rus  ; 

Ui, 


as  e in  me ; 

as  e in  me ; 

as  au  in  haul ; 
as  ew  in  few ; 

as  i in  kite ; 


as  ai  in  fair ; 

as  German  o,  or 
French  eu  ;* 
as  ou  in  house; 
as  oi  in  oil;* 

as  oui  in  French 
oui ; 


as  German  ai  in 
Kaiser, 
as  oy  in  joy. 

as  ou  in  house, 
same  as  in  Eng- 
lish Method, 
as  we. 


1 Some  prefer  the  French  sound  of  tl  in  sur  ; the  short  sounds  have  no  exact  English 
equivalents. 


0 X 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


309 


I. 

LATIN  LETTERS. 

II.  1 

English  b 

English  Method 
( Webster ) . 

in.  | 

Equivalents,  acc< 

Continental 
Method . 

IV. 

>RDING  TO 

Eoma.n  Method. 

Consonants. 

C,  before  e,  i,  y,  se,  ce,  and  eu, 

as  s in  since ; 

as  ts,  sharp,  in 
gets ; ** 

as  k. 

C,  before  a,  o,  u,  and  conso- 

as  k; 

as  k; 

as  k. 

nants, 

Ch, 

as  k; 

as  ch  in  loch ; * 

as  k. 

T,  Th,  Rh, 

as  t,  th,  r; 

as  t and  r ; no  th ; 

as  t and  r ; no  th. 

T,  S,  C,  before  ia,  ie,  ii,  iu, 

as  sh,  zh. 

# 

# 

and  eu,  preceded  immediately 
by  the  accent, 

T,  after  s,  t,  z,  or  when  the 

# 

# 

% 

accent  falls  on  the  first  of  the 
vowels  following,  the  conso- 
nant retains  its  pure  sound,  as 
in  UruVti-iy  Mil-Wa-des , 
etc. 

So  also  in  the  termination  -tion, 

# 

# 

as  in  The-o~dorti-on  ; 

s, 

as  s in  this; 

as  s in  this; 

as  s in  this. 

S final,  after  e or  a liquid, 

as  z. 

# 

% 

Sch, 

as  sk; 

as  s in  sin,  fol- 
lowed by  ch  in 
loch ; * 

as  sk. 

X initial, 

as  z; 

as  gs  or  ks  ;* 

as  gs  or  ks.* 

G before  e,  i,  y,  ae,  ce,  or  an- 

as j; 

as  g in  get ; 

as  g in  get. 

other  g,  followed  by  e. 

G before  a,  o,  u,  and  other  con- 

as g in  get ; 

as  g in  get ; 

as  g in  get. 

sonants. 

J, 

as  j in  June; 

as  y in  you ; 

as  y in  you. 

Ph  initial  before  a mute  is 
as  Ehtlii'a , 

silent, 

Thi'a. 

# 

# 

P initial  before  s,  t is 
as  Esy'che, 

JPtol-e-mce'us , 

silent, 

Sy'ke, 

Tol-e-mse'us. 

# 

# 

Mn,  Tm,  etc.,  initial  consonants, 
as  Mne-mos'y-ne, 
Tmo'lus, 

mute, 

Ne-mos'y-ne, 

Mo'lus. 

# 

# 

E in  final  syllable  es, 

as  es  in  Andes. 

# 

* For  the  situations  marked  * under  the  Continental  and  Roman  Methods,  the  lip  of 
the  teacher  should  supply  the  necessary  illustration. 

**  Some  pronounce  c = k throughout. 


310 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


Ab-bre'vi-a'tions  of  Latin  Proper 
Names  of  frequent  occurrence : — 
A.,  Aulus ; C.,  Caius , or  Gains; 
Cn.,  Cneus  ; D.,  Decimus ; L.,  Lu- 
cius ; M.,  Marcus;  P.,  Publius; 
Q.,  Quintus;  S.,  Sextus;  T.,  Titus. 

A-by'dus,  Greek  Abudos,  a city  of 
Mysia  on  the  Hellespont  nearly 
opposite  Sestos  on  the  European 
shore. 

Ac'ar-na'ni-a,  Greek  Alcarnaniay 
the  most  westerly  province  of 
Greece,  between  Epirus  and  JEto- 
lia. 

Aeh'e-lo'us,  Greek  Achelo’os,  the 
god  of  the  river  of  that  name, 
and  the  defeated  competitor  of 
Hercules. 

Ach'e-ron  (Greek),  a river  leading 
to  the  lower  world,  or  placed  in  it. 

A'cre  (a'ker),  a seaport  town  in 
Syria. 

A-crop'o-lis  (Greek),  literally  the 
upper  or  higher  city ; a citadel, 
especially  that  of  Athens. 

iE'dlle,  Latin  aedilis,  literally  mas- 
ter-builder, architect,  a magistrate 
in  Rome  who  had  charge  of  public 
works,  buildings,  etc. ; also  of  the 
public  spectacles,  etc.  Before 
Julius  Cassar  there  were  two 
classes  of  aediles,  those  of  the 
people,  called  AE.  Plebeii , who  sat 
on  benches,  and  the  JEdiles  curules, 
who  obtained  their  name  from 
the  sella  curulis , or  chair,  on  which 
they  sat  for  judgment.  Julius 
Caesar  added  a third  class,  called 
JE.  Cereales,  who  had  charge  of 
the  public  granaries,  etc. 

^-gi'na,  Greek  Aigina,  an  island 


in  the  Saronic  Gulf ; surrounded 
by  Attica,  Megaris,  and  Epidau- 
rus;  also  the  name  of  its  chief 
city. 

iE-gu'sa,  Greek  Aigoussa,  the 
southernmost  of  a group  of  three 
small  islands  off  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  Sicily ; its  modern 
name  is  Favignana. 

^E'li-a'nus,  Greek  Ailianos,  a Greek 
sophist,  and  writer  of  history. 

JE-o'li-an,  relating  to  the  iEoles, 
or  AEolii,  one  of  the  four  races 
into  which  the  Hellenes  are 
usually  divided,  supposed  to  be 
the  descendants  of  the  mythical 
AEolus,  the  son  of  Hellen. 

A-la/ni  ( Mongolian ; literally  moun- 
taineer), a Scythian  people  upon 
the  Tanais  and  Palus  Maeotis ; 
afterwards  on  the  Danube,  and 
lastly  with  the  Vandali  and  Suevi 
in  Gaul  and  Spain. 

Al-caiFder,  Greek  Allcandros,  a 
young  Spartan. 

APci-bFa-deg,  Greek  AlJcibiades, 
was  born  at  Athens  about  b.c.  450. 

Alc-me'ne,  Greek  AUcmene , the 
daughter  of  Electryon  and  An- 
axus,  the  mother  of  Hercules, 
and  the  wife  of  Amphitryon. 

Al-phe'us,  Greek  Alpheios,  the 
chief  river  of  Peloponnesus. 

Am'a-zons,  Greek  Amazones , a 
mythical  race  of  warlike  women. 

A'mi-ens,  d'me-eng  (French),  a town 
in  the  Picardie,  on  the  Somme,  in 
north-western  France. 

A-mPna,  a-m'ifna  (Arabic),  also 
Emina  (e-m'dnd),  the  mother  of 
Mohammed,  was  of  Jewish  birth. 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


311 


Am-phic'ty  on'ic  Council,  or 

League,  Greek  Amphictuonia,  a 
kind  of  national  institution  em- 
bracing the  principal  Hellenic 
states,  and  founded  for  maintain- 
ing the  common  interests  of 
Greece. 

Am-phit'ry-on  (Greek),  the  son  of 
Alcaeus  and  Hipponome,  and  the 
putative  father  of  Hercules. 

An-ti'o-ehus,  Greek  Antiochos , the 
name  of  numerous  historical  per- 
sons. 

Aq'uit-aine',  aUit-an'  (Latin  Aqui- 
tania),  a province  in  Southern 
Gaul,  between  the  Loire  and  the 
Pyrenees ; the  modern  Guienne. 

Ar-be'la,  a town  of  Eastern  Adia- 
bene,  a province  of  Assyria. 

Ar-ca'di-a  (Greek),  the  central 
country  of  Peloponnesus. 

Ar'-ehi-da/mus,  Greek  Archidamos, 
the  name  of  five  Spartan  kings. 

Ar'chi-me'de§,  Greek  Archimedes, 
of  Syracuse,  the  most  celebrated 
of  ancient  mathematicians. 

Ar'clion,  name  of  the  nine  chief 
magistrates  at  Athens;  the  archon 
being  the  highest  in  authority. 

Ar'de-a,  a very  ancient  city  of  La- 
tium,  24  miles  south  of  Rome,  still 
extant  under  the  same  name. 

Afre§,  a' res  (Greek),  the  god  of  war, 
the  son  of  Zeus  and  Hera. 

Ar'go-lis  (Greek),  the  territory  of 
Argos ; also  called  the  Argeia , 
extended  from  N.  to  S.,  from  the 
frontiers  of  Phlius  and  Cleonse 
to  those  of  Cynuria;  it  was  sep- 
arated on  the  W.  from  Arcadia, 
and  from  Epidaurus  on  the  E. 


Ar/is-ti/de§,  Greek  Aristeides , son 
of  Lysimachus,  an  illustrious 
Athenian. 

A-ris'to-de'mus,  Greek  Aristode- 
mos,  the  name  of : 1.  the  father 
of  Eurysthenes  and  Procles,  p. 
10 ; 2.  the  Spartan  known  as 
“ the  coward  ” ; and  many  other 
persons. 

Ar-ma-da  (Spanish),  a naval  or 
military  armament. 

Ar/ta-pher/ne§,  1.  the  son  of  Hys- 
taspes  and  brother  of  Darius ; 
2.  the  son  of  the  former,  in  joint 
command  with  Datis. 

A'runs,  the  son  of  Tarquinius  Su- 
perbus. 

A-the'na  (Greek),  a Greek  goddess 
identified  with  the  Minerva  of 
the  Romans. 

A'thos  (Greek),  a lofty  mountain 
at  the  extremity  of  a long  penin- 
sula between  the  Singitic  Gulf 
and  the  Aegean.  The  peninsula 
and  the  mountain  are  designated 
by  the  modern  name  of  Hagion 
Or  os,  i.e.,  the  Holy  Mountain,  on 
account  of  the  numerous  mon- 
asteries and  chapels  with  which 
it  is  covered. 

At'las  (Greek),  the  leader  of  the 
Titans  in  their  conflict  with  Zeus, 
who  was  condemned  to  bear 
heaven  on  his  head  and  hands. 

At/ti-ca,  Greek  Attilce,  one  of  the 
political  divisions  of  Greece. 

Au'er-stadt,  ou'er-stett  (German), 
a village  N.  of  Weimar,  in  Saxe- 
Weimar. 

Au-ge'as,  Greek  Augeias,  a legend- 
ary king  of  Elis. 


312 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


Au'ster-litz,  ou' ster-litts  (German), 
a town  in  Austria,  S.  of  Briinn. 

A-var'  (Slavonic),  in  Latin  Avar, 
pi.  Avares , the  name  of  a Scythian 
tribe  in  Hungary  and  elsewhere. 
The  word  Hungary  is  said  to  be 
a compound  of  Hun  and  Avar, 
Hunavar,  corrupted  into  Hungarn, 
as  in  Old  High  German. 

Ba-si-leus'f  Greek),  literally  a king ; 
designated  at  Athens  one  of  the 
chief  magistrates  second  in  rank. 

Basques,  bash  (French),  name  of 
the  natives  of  the  Spanish  prov- 
ince of  Biscay. 

Baut/zen,  bout1  sen  (German),  a town 
in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony. 

Beau-har'nais,  bo-ar-nd  (French), 
name  of  the  first  husband  of  Jo- 
sephine and  their  children;  her 
daughter  Hortense  was  the  mother 
of  Napoleon  III. 

BeresFna,  ber-e-se'na,  a swampy 
tributary  of  the  Dnieper ; the 
passage  took  place  W.  of  Smo- 
lensk, above  Borrissow,  Russia. 

Bi'  as,  of  Priene,  in  Ionia;  one  of 
the  Seven  Sages. 

Bib'u-lus,  L.  Calpurnius,  the  con- 
temporary of  Julius  Caesar. 

Bi-thynT-a,  Greek  Bithunia , a di- 
vision of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on 
the  W.  by  Mysia,  the  Propontis, 
and  the  Bosporus ; on  the  N.  by 
the  Euxine ; on  the  E.  by  Pontus ; 
and  on  the  S.  by  Phrygia  and 
Galatia. 

Bi'ton,  and  Cle'o-bis,  the  sons  of 
Cydippe,  the  priestess  of  Juno  or 
Hera,  at  Argos. 


Ble'da  (Slavonic  bleida;  German 
Blodel). 

Bo-e'thi-us,  a philosophic  writer ; 
died,  a.d.  524. 

Bru-maire',  name  of  the  second 
month  of  the  calendar  adopted  by 
the  first  French  republic. 

Bu-ceph'a-Ius,  Greek  Bouhephalos , 
literally  bulbs  head,  from  the 
mark  with  which  it  was  branded ; 
the  horse  of  Alexander. 

Byr'sa  (Greek),  literally  a bull’s 
hide,  the  name  of  the  original 
site  of  the  citadel  and  city  of 
Carthage. 

By-zan'ti-um,  Greek  Buzantion,  a 
city  in  Thrace,  afterwards  Con- 
stantinople. 

Ca-a-ba  (Arabic),  name  of  the 
temple  at  Mecca,  so  called  from 
its  cubical  shape,  the  Arabic  hahb 
signifying  cube. 

Ca-di'jah,  ca-dee'ya  (Arabic). 

Cad-me'a,  Greek  Kadmeia , was  the 
name  of  the  western  half  of  the 
city  of  Thebes,  and  the  Kadmeia, 
the  acropolis  on  the  lofty  southern 
hill. 

Cae're,  identical  with  Agulla  of  the 
Greeks, an  ancient  city  in  Southern 
Etruria ; the  modern  village  of 
Cervetri  marks  the  site. 

Caesar,  a surname  of  uncertain 
derivation,  and  the  title,  after 
Julius  Caesar,  conjoined  to  that 
of  Augustus,  of  all  the  Roman 
emperors  until  Hadrian,  when  C. 
denoted  the  crown  prince.  It  is 
the  same  word  as  the  German 
Kaiser , and  possibly  connected 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


313 


with  the  Russian  “ czar  ” or 
“tsarj.”  . 

Cam'pus  Mar'ti-us,  the  field  or 
camp  of  Mars  at  Rome,  is  the  name 
given  to  the  plain  between  the 
Fincian,  Quirinal,  and  Capitoline 
hills  on  the  E.,  and  the  Tiber  on 
the  W. 

Can'nae,  a small  town  of  Apulia, 
on  the  Aufidus. 

Car'tliage,  Latin  Carthago ; its  name 
is  derived  from  a Phoenician  root 
signifying  city.  It  stood  on  the 
peninsula  between  the  old  Phoeni- 
cian colonies  of  Utica  and  Tunis, 
in  the  region  of  N.  Africa  called 
by  the  Romans  Zeugitana. 

Cas'torand  Pol'lux,  Greek  Kastor 
and  Poludeukes,  twin  brothers  re- 
warded for  their  affection  with  a 
place  in  the  heavens,  where  they 
shine  as  the  Gemini,  “ the  twins.” 

Ce'crops,  Greek  Kekrops,  name  of 
the  first  king  of  Attica,  which  de- 
rived from  him  its  name  Cecropia. 

Qen'taur  (Greek),  literally  a bull- 
stabber,  the  name  of  a fabulous 
monster. 

Cer'be-rtis,  Greek  Kerberos , the 
watch-dog  in  the  lower  world. 

Cer/y-ne/a,  Greek  Keruneia,  a town 
of  Achaia. 

-Ghaer/o-ne/a,  Greek  Chaironeia,  a 
town  of  Boeotia. 

-Uha-gan',  Slavonic,  in  Latin  Cag - 
anus  or  Cac-anus , the  name  or 
title  of  the  kings  of  the  Avars. 
See  Avar. 

Chal-ce'don,  Greek  Chalkedony  a 
city  of  Bithynia  in  Asia  Minor, 
the  modern  Scutari. 


-CharT-la'us,  Greek  Charilaos,  a 
king  of  Sparta. 

-Cher'so-nese,  Latin  Chersonesusf 
Greek  Chersonesos,  literally  a land- 
island,  a peninsula ; a name  given 
to  a number  of  localities,  e.g.,  the 
Thracian  Ch.,  the  Tauric  Ch., 
the  Golden  Ch.,  etc. 

-Chi'lon,  Greek  Cheilon,  a Spartan, 
one  of  the  Seven  Sages. 

Cim'ber,  L.  Tillius,  one  of  the 
murderers  of  Caesar. 

Ci'mou,  Greek  Kimon , the  son  of 
Miltiades. 

Cle'o-bis,  see  Biton. 

Cle'o-bu'lus,  Greek  ICleoboidos,  a 
citizen  of  Lindus  in  Rhodes,  one 
of  the  Seven  Sages. 

Cloe'li-a,  the  name  of  the  famous 
hostage. 

Clu'si-um,  Greek  Klousion,  an  an- 
cient and  inland  city  of  Etruria, 
near  the  modern  Chiusi. 

Co'cleg,  Horatius,  literally  Hora- 
tius,  “ the  one-eyed.” 

Co'drus,  Greek  Kodros,  the  self- 
sacrificing  king  of  Athens. 

Col'ia-tUnus,  the  husband  of  Lu- 
cretia. 

Con'sul  (Latin),  one  of  the  two  high- 
est magistrates  of  the  Roman  state. 

Cor'cy-ra,  or  Cor-cy'ra,  Greek  Kor- 
kuray  the  name  of  the  island  and 
its  principal  city,  now  called  Corfu. 

Cos,  Greek  Itos,  a beautiful  island 
in  the  Myrtoan  Sea,  off  the  west- 
ern shore  of  Asia  Minor. 

Cos'sack,  Russian  Kasack,  literally 
a robber  or  light-armed  soldier; 
a warlike  tribe  in  the  east  and 
south  of  Russia. 


314 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


Creon,  Greek  Kreon , the  name  of 
three  mythical  persons. 

Cret'e,  Latin  Creta,  Greek  Krete , an 
island  in  the  Aegean. 

Croe'sus,  Greek  Kroisos,  the  last 
king  of  Lydia. 

Cu'mae,  Greek  Kume,  one  of  the 
most  famous  and  ancient  Greek 
colonies,  a city  on  the  coast  of 
Campania.  It  was  the  home  of 
the  Sibyl. 

Cunc-ta/tor  (Latin),  literally  a de- 
layer, a loiterer. 

Cyc'la-de§,  Greek  Kuklades , a group 
of  islands  in  the  iEgean  Sea,  so 
called  from  their  lying  in  a circle 
round  Delos,  the  smallest  of  the 
group. 

Cyd'nus,  Greek  Kudnos,  a river  of 
Cilicia  flowing  through  Tarsus. 

Cy'prus,  Greek  Kupros , an  island 
lying  off  the  coast  of  Phoenicia 
and  Cilicia. 

Cy'rus,  Greek  Kuros,  the  name  of 
two  Persian  monarchs. 

Czar,  czaar,  Zar,  zaar,  Tsar,  tsaar ; 
all  these  variations  are  found; 
Russian  tsarj , a king ; title  of  the 
emperor  of  Russia. 

Da-ri'us,  Greek  Dareios,  Dareiaios , 
the  name  of  several  Persian  mon- 
archs. 

Da'tis,  Greek  Ddtis,  a Persian  com- 
mander. 

Daun,  German  doun , an  Austrian 
field-marshal. 

De'li-um,  Greek  Delion,  a city  on 
the  coast  of  Boeotia. 

De-ore' tals,  a book  containing  a 
collection  of  papal  decrees. 


De-i'a-nePra  (Greek),  the  wife  of 
Hercules. 

Del'phi,  Greek  Delplioi,  a town  in 
Phocis,  famed  for  the  oracle  of 
Apollo. 

Dem'i-urge  (Greek  Demiourgoi, 
Latin  Demiurgi),  artisans,  one 
of  the  three  classes  into  which 
the  Athenian  people  were  di- 
vided. 

Den'ne-witz,  den'ne-vitts  (German), 
a village  S.  of  Grossbeeren,  near 
Juterbog. 

Der'vish,  Persian  derveesch,  poor, 
from  derew , to  beg ; literally  a 
beggar ; spelt  also  Dervis. 

De-si-de'ri-us,  or  Didier,  the  last 
king  of  the  Lombards. 

Dess'au,  German  Dess' ou,  name  of 
a distinguished  general,  and  of  a 
town  in  North  Germany. 

Di-a'na,  sister  of  Apollo,  the  god- 
dess of  the  moon  and  of  hunting. 

Di'do,  the  reputed  foundress  of 
Carthage. 

Di-og'e-ne§  (Greek),  the  Cynic,  a 
native  of  Sinope  in  Pontus. 

DPo-me'de§  (Greek),  king  of  the 
Bistones  in  Thrace. 

Do'ri-ans,  the  inhabitants  of  Doris, 
a small  hill  country  in  Greece, 
bounded  by  Aetolia,  Southern 
Thessaly,  the  Ozolian  Locrians, 
and  Phocis;  they  conquered  the 
Peloponnesus  and  spread  over  the 
iEgean. 

Dra'co,  Greek  Drakon , the  author 
of  the  first  written  code  of  laws 
at  Athens. 

Du-i'li-us,  C.,  was  consul  with  Cn. 
Cornelius  Asina  in  b.c.  260. 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


315 


Dyr-rha'«hi-uni,  Gr.  Durrhachion , 
a city  on  the  coast  of  Illyricum, 
formerly  called  Epidamnus,  now 
Durazzo. 

Ec-bat'a-na,  old  Greek  orthog- 
raphy Agbatana,  a famous  city  of 
Media. 

Ec'no-mus,  Greek  EJcnomos,  a hill 
on  the  S.  coast  of  Sicily,  between 
Agrigentum  and  Gela. 

El'ba,  el'ba,  an  island  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, between  Corsica  and 
the  mainland,  called  by  the  Ro- 
mans Ilva,  and  by  the  Greeks 
Aithalia. 

E'lis  (Greek),  a district  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  also  the  name  of  its 
capital.  At  Olympia,  a town  in 
Elis,  the  celebrated  Olympic 
Games  were  held. 

Eph'or,  Greek  Ephoros,  Latin  Epho- 
rus,  literally  an  overseer  (plur. 
the  ephoroi),  the  name,  at  Sparta, 
of  an  executive  directory  of  five 
magistrates. 

Ep'i-meiPi-deg  (Greek),  a poet  and 
prophet  of  Crete,  reckoned  by 
some  among  the  Seven  Sages. 

E'res-burg  (German),  now  Stadt- 
berg  on  the  Diemel,  a tributary 
of  the  Weser. 

Er/y-man/thus,  Greek  Erumanthos, 
a lofty  range  of  mountains  on  the 
frontiers  of  Arcadia,  Achaia,  and 
Elis. 

Er'y-thePa,  Gr.  Erutheia,  an  island 
near  the  Latin  Cades y the  Phoeni- 
cian Gadir,  the  Greek  Gadeira,  or 
the  modern  Cadiz  or  Cadix,  the 


chief  Phoenician  colony  on  the 
ocean,  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Her- 
cules. 

Ex-ar<eh'ate,  strictly  the  territories 
of  Ravenna,  Bologna,  and  Fer- 
rara, and  of  the  Pentapolis,  ad- 
ministered by  an  Exarch,  Greek 
exarchoSy  Latin  exarchus ; literally 
a prince,  a viceroy. 

Eu-e'nus,  or  E-ve'nus,  Greek  Eue- 
nos,  a river  of  Aetolia. 

Eu'no-mus,  Greek  Eunomos,  see 
p.  7 ; also  the  name  of  a king  of 
Sparta,  see  p.  9. 

Eu-pat/rT-dae,  Greek  Eupatridai, 
literally  the  descendants  of  a good 
or  noble  father;  at  Athens  they 
were  the  first  class  of  the  citi- 
zens. 

Eu-phra'te§,  “ the  great  river  ” 
which  rises  in  Armenia  and 
empties  into  the  Persian  Gulf ; 
the  name,  said  to  signify  “ fertil- 
ity,” survives  in  the  modern  Frat, 
or  Fdrat. 

Eu-rys'the-neg,  Greek  Eurusthenes, 
and  Procles,  Greek  RroJcles , the 
twin  sons  of  Aristodemus. 

Eu-rys'the-us,  Gr.  Eurusiheus,  son 
of  Sthenelos,  king  of  Mycenae. 

Eu-ryt'i-on,  Greek  Eurution,  a son 
of  Mars  and  Erythia,  herdsman 
of  Geryones. 

Eu'ry-tus,  Greek  Enrutos,  the  father 
of  Iole.  See  p.  7. 

Eu-se'bi-us,  Greek  Eusebios,  bishop 
of  Caesareia,  the  father  of  ecclesi- 
astical history. 

Eii'xme,  Greek  Euxinos,  Latin 
Euxinus  Poritus,  the  Black  Sea. 


316 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


Fontaine'bleau,  fdng-tane'blo  (Fr.), 
a town  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine,  35  miles  S.E.  of  Paris. 

Fo'rum  (Latin),  at  Rome,  the  mar- 
ket-place where  public  business 
was  transacted  and  justice  dis- 
pensed. 

Fre'jug,  a town  of  France  in  the 
department  of  Var. 

Fried'land,  fred'land,  a town  on 
the  Alle,  in  East  Prussia,  E.  of 
Eylau. 

Ga'bi-i,  an  ancient  city  of  Latium, 
on  the  road  from  Rome  to  Prae- 
neste. 

Ga-le'ri-us  Va-le'ri-us  Max'im-i- 
a/nus,  also  called  Maximia'nus 
II.,  Roman  emperor. 

Gaul,  Latin  Gallia,  the  country  of 
the  Gauls  ; the  term  Gallia  ulterior 
or  Transalpina  designated  Gaul 
beyond  the  Rhine,  while  Gallia 
citerior  or  Cisalpina  denoted  Gaul 
in  Upper  Italy. 

G81'im-er,  last  king  of  the  Van- 
dals. 

Ge-om'6-ri,  Greek  Geomoroi , land- 
owners,  but  at  Athens  the  third 
class  of  citizens,  designating  hus- 
bandmen. 

Gg-ru'si-a,  Greek  Gerousia , literally 
a council  of  elders,  senators;  at 
Sparta,  the  Senate  or  aristocratic 
assembly. 

Ge-ry'o-neg,  Greek  Geruones,  a giant 
who  was  slain  by  Hercules. 

Gra-nPcus,  Greek  Granikos , a river 
in  Troas  which  emptied  into  the 
Propontis. 

Grossbee'ren,  gross-bey' r8n  (Ger- 


man), a village  about  20  miles  S. 
of  Berlin. 

Gym-naAsi-um,  Greek  Gymnasion , 
the  public  place  where  athletic 
exercises  were  practised. 

Ha'dri-an,  Latin  Hadrianus,  P. 
Ae'lius,  fourteenth  Roman  em- 
peror. 

Had,ru-me/tum,  a Phoenician  col- 
ony older  than  Carthage,  on  the 
sea-coast,  and  one  of  the  chief 
cities  of  Africa  Propria. 

Ha-miUcar,  a Carthaginian  name 
of  frequent  occurrence. 

HaiPni-bal,  a Carthaginian  name 
of  frequent  occurrence. 

Has'dru-bal,  more  correctly  Asdru- 
bal,  a Carthaginian  name  of  fre- 
quent occurrence. 

He-gi'ra,  or  Hejira,  Arabic  hedjrat, 
lit.  flight  or  emigration ; the  flight 
of  Mohammed,  July  16,  a.d.  622, 
from  which  is  dated  the  Moham- 
medan era. 

Hell'e-iiop'o-lis  (Greek),  literally 
the  city  of  Helefla,  in  Bithynia. 

Hel'les-pont,  Latin  Hellespontus , 
Greek  Hellespontos , the  strait 
which  divides  Europe  from  Asia, 
and  unites  the  Propontis  with  the 
iEgean. 

He-lo/te§,  Greek  Heilotes,  of  uncer- 
tain derivation,  a serf  or  bonds- 
man of  the  Spartans. 

He'ra  (Greek),  the  wife  of  Zeus, 
answering  to  the  Juno  of  the 
Romans. 

HePcu-leg,  Gr.  Her’a-cles.  See  p.  1. 

Her  mes,  the  Greek  name  of  Mer- 
curius, 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


317 


Hes-per'i-deg,  the  earlier  name  of 
the  Cyrenaic  city,  Berenice ; the 
name  of  the  fabled  gardens,  and 
of  the  mythical  daughters  of 
Night. 

Hi/e-ro,  Greek  Hieron,  the  name  of 
two  kings  of  Syracuse. 

Hip'po-drome,  Greek  hippodromos , 
from  hippos , a horse,  and  dromos, 
a course ; a race-course  for  horses 
and  chariots. 

Hohenlin'den,  hd-hen-lin'den  (Ger- 
man), a village  in  Upper  Bavaria, 
S.  of  Munich. 

Hy'  dra,  Greek  Iludra,  literally  a 
water-serpent,  the  monster  killed 
by  Hercules  near  the  Lernean  lake. 

Hy'per-bo're-ans,  Greek  Huper- 
horeioi , literally  beyond  Boreas, 
i.e.  the  north  wind ; a supposed 
people  in  the  extreme  north,  noted 
for  piety  and  happiness. 

I-be'ri-a,  an  extensive  tract  of  coun- 
try between  the  Euxine  and  the 
Caspian  seas,  to  the  south  of  the 
Caucasus. 

Il'di-co,  German  Hil' degunde,  the 
last  wife  of  Attila. 

I-maum'  (Arabic),  also  Imam  and 
Iman,  a Mohammedan  scribe, 
secular  clergyman,  president  of  a 
mosque,  and  spiritual  judge.  See 
Mohammed,  p.  128. 

Ingria,  German  Ingermannland , for- 
merly a Swedish  province  in  the 
Baltic. 

ro-la'os  (Greek),  the  friend  of  Her- 
cules. 

Fo-le  (Greek),  the  daughter  of 
Eurytus. 


I-o'ni-an,  relating  to  the  country 
and  people  of  Ionia,  or  that  part 
of  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
from  Phocaea  in  the  north  to 
Miletus  in  the  south. 

Ir-men-suU,  German  Irmensdule , an 
ancient  sacred  tree  which  stood 
in  a sacred  grove  between  the 
Weser  and  the  Diemel. 

Ig'lam  (Arabic),  literally  surrender, 
then  the  orthodox  faith,  and  thus 
the  name  of  the  Mohammedan 
religion. 

I'van,  e'van  (Russian),  John. 

Je'na,  yey'na  (German),  a univer- 
sity town,  E.  of  Weimar. 

JiUno  (Latin),  daughter  of  Saturn, 
sister  and  wife  of  Jupiter;  re- 
sembling in  many  respects  the 
Hera  of  the  Greeks. 

Ju'pi-ter  (Latin),  the  chief  of  the 
gods  among  the  Romans,  son  of 
Saturn;  answering  to  the  Greek 
Zeus. 

Katz'bach,  catts-bach  ( ch  German 
sound),  a tributary  of  the  Oder. 
The  battle  was  fought  near  the 
village  of  Wahlstadt. 

Ko'reish,  Jco'rish  (Arabic),  the  name 
of  the  most  noble  tribe  of  the 
Arabs. 

Krem'lin,  name  of  the  ancient 
citadel  of  Moscow. 

Kulm'  (German),  a village  near 
Teplitz  in  Bohemia. 

Kun'ners-dorf  (German),  a vil- 
lage in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Brandenburg,  near  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder. 


318 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


Kiis'trin,  German  ii  (German),  town 
in  Prussia,  on  the  Oder. 

Lab'a-rum,  name  of  the  Roman 
military  standard  of  later  times. 

Lag-e-dae'mon,  Greek  Lakedaimon 
and  Lakonike , called  by  the  Ro- 
mans Laconica  and  Laconia , desig- 
nates the  south-easterly  district 
of  Peloponnesus,  and  frequently 
Sparta. 

Le-o'ben,  mining  town  in  Styria. 

Ler'na,  or  Lerne  ( Greek),  a marshy 
district  in  Argolis. 

Leu 'then,  loi' ten,  a village  in  Si- 
lesia, eight  miles  N.  W.  of  Breslau. 

Liign'y,  linn1  ye  (French),  a village 
N.W.  of  Namur  in  Belgium. 

Lin'us,  Greek  Linos,  the  son  of 
Apollo  and  Urania,  who  taught 
Orpheus  and  Hercules  to  play  the 
lyre. 

Lip'a-ra( Greek),  the  modern  Lipari, 
the  largest  of  the  group  of  the 
iEolian  Islands,  between  Sicily 
and  Italy. 

Lu'ca,  a city  of  Etruria,  now  Lucca . 

Lune'ville,  lu-ney'vil  ( u French 
sound),  a town  in  Lorraine,  W. 
of  Strassburg. 

Lu-per-ca/li-a,  name  of  a boisterous 
festival  of  the  Lycean  Pan,  cele- 
brated at  Rome  in  February. 

Lu-cre'ti-a  (Latin),  the  wife  of  L. 
Tarquinius  Collatinus. 

Ly-cur'gus,  Greek  Lukouryos,  the 
Spartan  legislator. 

Lyd/i-a,  Greek  Ludia,  a country  in 
the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor. 

Mag-ne'si-a  (Greek),  the  name  of  a 


city  on  the  Maeander  in  Ionia,  and 
of  a town  on  the  slope  of  Mount 
Sipylus  in  Lydia. 

Mam'e-luke,  Arabic  mam-look',  one 
of  the  mounted  soldiery  of  Egypt, 
formed  of  Circassian  slaves  of 
the  Sultan. 

Ma-inil'i-us  Oc-ta'vi-us  (Latin),  the 
son-in-law  of  Tarquinius  Superbus. 

Marche,  or  March,  allied  to  the 
German  Mark,  a frontier  or  bor- 
der country. 

Mar'ci-a'nus,  or,  abbreviated,  Mar- 
cian,  name  of  an  emperor  of  the 
East,  a.d.  450-457. 

Mar-do /ni-us,  Greek  Mardonios,  a 
Persian  general. 

Ma-ren'go,  a village  near  Alessan- 
dria on  the  Tanara,  a tributary  of 
the  Po. 

Miirg  (Latin),  the  god  of  war,  son 
of  Jupiter  and  Juno. 

Mas-sil'i-a,  a celebrated  seaport 
town  in  Gallia,  the  modern  Mar- 
seilles. 

Max'i-mi-a'nus,  Roman  emperor, 
the  father  of  Fausta,  wife  of  Con- 
stantine the  Great. 

Me-di'na,  me-de'na  (Arabic),  name 
of  a city  in  Arabia,  248  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Mecca. 

Me-dim'nus,  Greek  Medimnos , the 
usual  Attic  corn-measure,  contain- 
ing almost  12  imperial  gallons,  or 
1J  bushel. 

Me'don  (Greek),  the  first  Athenian 
archon. 

Meg'a-ra  (Greek),  the  name  of  a 
city  in  Greece  Proper,  a mile  from 
the  Saronic  Gulf;  and  of  a city 
in  Sicily. 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


319 


Mel'a-nip'pe  (Greek),  a queen  of 
the  Amazons. 

Me'mel,  mey'mel  (German),  a forti- 
fied seaport  in  East  Prussia,  74 
miles  N.N.E.  of  Konigsberg. 

Me-taiPrus,  a river  of  Umbria  flow- 
ing into  the  Adriatic,  which  pre- 
serves its  name  in  the  modern 
Metauro  or  Metro. 

Mi-kaPlo-vitch,orMi-khaiflo-vitch, 
me-ki'ld-vitsh  (Russian),  signifying 
the  son  of  Mikhail,  second  name 
of  the  father  of  Peter  the  Great. 

Mile,  Roman,  Latin  mille  or  mile, 
literally  1,000  paces,  or  a Roman 
mile,  estimated  at  1,618  English 
yards,  or  142  yards  less  than  the 
English  statute  mile. 

Mil'vi-us,  or  Mul'vi-us,  Pons,  the 
Milvian  Bridge  across  the  Tiber, 
above  Rome,  on  the  Via  Elaminia. 

Min/ci-us,  a tributary  river  of  the 
Po  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  the  modern 
Mincio. 

31ith-ri-da/te§  V.,  the  son  of  Phar- 
naces,  king  of  Pontus. 

Montmar  fc're,  mdng-martr ' ( Erench ) , 
a hill  and  suburb  of  Paris. 

Mog'lem,  a Mussulman. 

Mtif'ti,  the  head  or  high  priest  of 
the  Mohammedan  clergy. 

Mun'da,  a city  in  Hispania  (Spain), 
now  Monda. 

My-ce'nae,  Greek  Mukenai,  a very 
ancient  city  of  the  plain  of  Argos. 

My'lae,  Greek  Mulai , a city  on  the 
north  coast  of  Sicily. 

Myt/i-le/ne,  or  Mitylene,  Gr.  Muti- 
lene  or  Mitulene,  a celebrated  city 
of  Lesbos,  an  island  off  the  coast 
of  Mysia;  now  Metelin. 


Nar'seg  (Greek),  the  rival  of  Beli- 
sarius. 

Na-rys'kine,  or  Na-rych'kine, 

nd-ris'ken , nd-rich'ken  (Russian), 
family  name  of  the  mother  of 
Peter  the  Great. 

Ne'me-a  (Greek),  a valley  in  the 
northern  part  of  Argolis,  between 
Chleonae  and  Phlius. 

Ne/o-cle§  (Greek),  the  father  of 
Themistocles. 

Ne're-us  (Greek),  a mythical  char- 
acter, the  wise,  unerring  old  man 
of  the  sea. 

Ni-gae/a,  Greek  Nikaia,  a city  in 
Bithynia,  now  called  Isnik  or 
Nice. 

Nic/o-me/de§  III. , Greek  Nikomedes, 
king  of  Bithynia,  died  b.c.  74. 

Nic'o-me-dPa,  Greek  Nikomedeia, 
the  capital  of  Bithynia. 

Nie'men,  ne'men,  called  the  Memel 
near  its  end,  a river  flowing  from 
Russian  Poland  to  E.  Prussia, 
which  empties  into  the  Curische - 

Haff. 

Ni'ka,  ne'kd  (Greek),  name  of  the 
sedition  at  Constantinople. 

Nu-mid7i-a,  the  central  tract  on  the 
north  coast  of  Africa  now  known 
as  Algeria. 

O do/a-cer,  the  first  king  of  Italy. 

Oe/ne-us,  Greek  Oineus,  a river  of 
Pannonia,  now  called  Unna. 

Oe'ta,  Greek  Oite,  a mountain  in  the 
southern  part  of  Thessaly. 

Gl'i-gar^h-y,  Greek0%a?'cAi'a,  from 
oligos,  few,  and  archein,  to  rule ; 
a government  in  the  hands  of  a 
few. 


320 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


O-lyrrPpus,  Greek  Olumpos,  a lofty 
mountain  on  the  Macedonian 
boundary  of  Thessaly. 

OnPpha-le  (Greek),  the  wife  of 
Tmolus,  king  of  Lydia. 

0-ro/si-us,  a Latin  historian,  a na- 
tive of  Spain,  flourished  a.d.  416. 

Or'thrus,  Greek  Ortkros , the  dog  of 
Geryones. 

Pad-er-born',  pad-er-btfrn' , town  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  West- 
phalia. 

Pap'u-a,  or  Papp'u-a  Mons,  an 
inaccessible  mountain  region  in 
Numidia. 

Par'the-non  (Greek),  the  temple  of 
Athena  Parthenos,  i.e.  Athena  the 
Virgin,  in  the  citadel  at  Athens. 

Pa'ros  (Greek),  one  of  the  largest 
islands  of  the  Cyclades. 

Par-rlia/si-us,  Greek  Parrhasios, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  Greek 
painters. 

Pel'o-pon -ne'sus,  Gr.  Peloponnesos, 
the  southern  part  of  Greece,  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth,  now  theMorea. 

Pen-jab',  Pan  jab,  or  Punjab,  Greek 
Pentopotamia , literally  “ five  riv- 
ers/’ a large  district  in  the  north- 
west of  Hindustan,  watered  by 
the  Indus  and  its  five  great  af- 
fluents. 

Pen-ta-co'si-o-me-dim/ni  ( Greek ) , 
literally  500  medimni,  at  Athens 
the  first  class  of  citizens  under  the 
timocracy  established  by  Solon. 

Pe'ri-an/der,  Gr.  Periandros,  tyrant 
of  Corinth,  was  commonly  reck- 
oned among  the  Seven  Sages. 


Per'i-oe/ci,  Greek  Perioikoi,  literally 
dwellers  around  the  city.  In  La- 
conia, except  Sparta,  the  free  in- 
habitants of  the  towns ; at  Sparta, 
the  provincials,  who  enjoyed  civil 
liberty,  but  inferior  political  privi- 
leges. 

Pha-le'rum,  Greek  Phaleron , the 
western  harbor  of  Athens. 

Phar'na-ces,  Greek  Phar makes,  the 
name  of  two  kings  of  Pontus. 

Pliar-saTus,  Greek  Pharsalos,  a 
city  in  Thessaly.  Also  Pharsa'- 
lia,  when  it  designates  the  entire 
region  about  the  city. 

PhkPi-as, Greek  Pheidias,  the  great- 
est sculptor  and  statuary  of 
Greece. 

Pho/ci-on,  Greek  Pho'kion , a cele- 
brated Athenian  commander  and 
statesman. 

Phoenicia,  Gr.  Phoinike,  a coun- 
try on  the  coast  of  Syria,  bounded 
on  the  E.  by  Mount  Lebanon. 

Pillars  of  Her/cu-les,  Greek  Hera - 
kleous  Stelai  and  other  forms, 
Latin  Herculis  Columnae , the  name 
given  to  the  twin  rocks  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Mediterranean,  at 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar . 

Pi-sis'tra-tus,  Gr.  Peisistratos , the 
distinguished  tyrant  of  Athens. 

Pit/ta-cus,  Greek  Pittakos,  a native 
of  Mytilene  in  Lesbos,  was  one  of 
the  Seven  Sages. 

Plu'to,  Greek  Plouton,  the  king  of 
the  lower  world,  the  brother  of 
Jupiter  and  Neptune. 

PoPe-maroli,  Greek  Polemarclios , 
literally  leader  or  beginner  of 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


321 


war,  was  the  third  archon  at 
Athens. 

Pol/y-dec'tes-,  Greek  Poludektes,  the 
brother  of  Lycurgus  and  the 
father  of  Charilaus. 

Pon/ti-fex  Maxd-mus  (Latin),  the 
chief  or  supreme  high  priest  at 
Rome. 

Pon/tus,  Greek  Pontos , or,  in  full, 
Pon/tus  Eu^dnus,  either  the 
Black  Sea,  or  a province  in  Asia 
Minor. 

Por'se-na,  Lars,  king  of  Clusium. 
“ Lars ” was  a title  of  honor  given 
to  most  of  the  Etruscan  kings. 

Pot'i-dse/a,  Greek  Potidaia,  a city 
in  the  peninsula  Pallene,  later 
merged  in  Cassandreia. 

Potesch/ni,  pd-tesh'ne  (Russian), 
name  of  military  companies  of 
Peter  the  Great. 

Pos-tu'mi-us,  Aulus,  was  dictator 
at  Rome  in  b.c.  498.  The  Postumia 
gens  was  one  of  the  most  ancient 
patrician  families  of  the  city. 

Praetor  (Latin),  literally  one  who 
goes  before,  a Roman  magistrate 
charged  with  the  administration 
of  justice. 

Preo‘brashens/koe,7)?,e-o-6ms/i-cws/- 
hd  (Russian),  name  of  a village 
near  Moscow. 

Presjmrg,  press'burg,  a town  in 
Hungary,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube. 

Pres'ti-dig-i-ta'tor,  from  Latin 
praesto , quickly,  and  digitus  finger ; 
a quick-fingered  person, one  skilled 
in  legerdemain. 

Proxies  (Greek),  one  of  the  twin 
sons  of  Aristodemus. 


Pro-con'sul  (Latin),  literally  one 
who  acts  instead  of  a consul;  gen- 
erally the  governor  of  a Roman 
province. 

Pru'si-as,  Greek  Prousias , king  of 
Bithynia. 

Prussian-Eylau, . . ,-Vlow,  German 
Preussisch-Eylau,  a town  S.  of 
Konigsberg  in  East  Prussia. 

Pryt'a  ne'um,  Gr.  Prutaneion,  the 
president’s  hall,  or  the  town-hall, 
in  Greek  cities. 

PtoPe-mae-us,  Greek  Ptolemaios, 
the  name  of  the  kings  of  Egypt 
after  Alexander  the  Great. 

Pulta'wa,  or  Pulto'wa,  pul-ta'va, 
pul-to'va , name  of  the  capital  of 
the  Ukraine  (oo-cran'),  E.  of  the 
middle  course  of  the  Dnieper. 

Quaestor  (Latin),  literally  a seeker; 
a Romarl  magistrate  who  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  a treasurer. 

Rat/isbon,  rat'iz-btin , German  Re- 
gensburg, a town  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube,  in  Bavaria. 

Ra-ven'na,  name  of  a seaport  in 
Gallia  Cis.,  still  bearing  the  same 
name. 

Re-giPlus,  La'cus,  a small  lake  in 
Latium,  at  the  foot  of  the  Tuscu- 
lan  Hills. 

Regime,  re'sheem  (French),  style  of 
government ; old  regime , former 
style  or  order  of  government. 

Rha-gse7,  Greek  Rhagai,  etc.,  a city 
of  Media,  the  capital  of  Rhagiana, 
one  day’s  journey  from  the  Cas- 
pian Gates  and  ten  days’  march 
from  Ecbatana. 


322 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


Rhetor  (Greek),  a rhetorician,  an 
orator. 

Rhodes,  rodz,  Greek  Rodos,  Latin 
Rho'dus,  an  island  off  the  coast  of 
Caria. 

Rochefort,  rtf sh' for  (French),  a 
maritime  town  of  France,  on  the 
Charente. 

Roncesvalles7,  or  RoncevaP, 
rtfnd-stf-vaV , a narrow  pass  in  the 
Pyrenees. 

Ros/tra,  rtfs' tr a,  a stage  for  speak- 
ers in  the  Forum,  and  the  space 
around  it,  so  called  from  the 
beaks  of  captured  ships  with 
which  it  was  adorned. 

RiPbi-con,  and  Ru/bi-co,  a small 
stream  which  formed  the  boun- 
dary between  Italy  and  Cisalpine 
Gaul ; probably  the  modern  Pisa- 
tello. 

SaaPfeld,  sal'ftfld  (German),  a 
town  on  the  Saale,  in  the  princi- 
pality of  Saxe-Meiningen. 

Sa'gae,  Greek  SaJcai , a people  of 
Northern  Asia,  a part  of  the 
Scythians. 

Sa-gun'tum,  Gr.  Sagounton,  a town 
in  Hispania  Tarraconensis. 

SanPni-um,  one  of  the  chief  inland 
districts  of  Central  Italy. 

Sar/de§,  Greek  Sardeis,  often  writ- 
ten Sardis , the  ancient  capital  of 
Lydia. 

Schon-bruniP  (o  German  sound), 
an  imperial  castle  S.W.  of  Vienna. 

Sgip'i-o,  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
patrician  family  at  Rome. 

Se-ragPio,  se-ral'yd,  said  to  be  a 
noun  of  Persian  origin,  which  in 


its  Italian  form  of  serraglio  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  sera,  a door- 
bar,  and  denotes  literally  “ that 
which  is  locked.”  The  Persian 
serai  denotes  a palace,  and  espe- 
cially that  part  of  it  occupied  by 
the  wives  of  Eastern  monarchs. 

Sib'yl,  Greek  Sibulla,  literally  she 
that  tells  the  will  of  Zeus ; a fe- 
male soothsayer,  a prophetess. 

Sig'burg,  or  Siegburg,  seg'burg, 
name  of  an  old  castle  and  of  a 
modern  town  on  the  Sieg  in 
Rhenish  Prussia. 

Si-le/si-a,  si-le-sln-d , a province  in 
S.E.  Prussia. 

Sir/mi-um,  an  ancient  and  impor- 
tant city  in  the  south-eastern  part 
of  Lower  Pannonia. 

Smo-lgnsk',  a town  on  the  upper 
course  of  the  Dnieper,  in  Russia. 

Sou-bise7,  su-b'is'  (French),  name  of 
a general. 

Sparta,  Greek  S parte,  the  capital 
of  Laconia;  it  was  also  called 
Lacedsemon. 

Spu-riiPna,  an  Etruscan  name,  that 
of  the  haruspex  who  warned 
Caesar. 

Sta/di-um,  Greek  stadion,  literally 
that  which  stands  fast,  a fixed 
standard  of  length  measuring  600 
Greek  feet,  125  Roman  paces,  or 
625  feet,  equal  to  600  feet  9 inches 
English,  or  somewhat  less  than 
one-eighth  of  an  English  mile. 

StrePitz  or  StrePtsi,  stre'lits, 
strtflt'se,  name  of  the  Russian 
body-guards. 

Stym-phaGus,  Greek  Stumphalos, 
etc.,  the  name  of  a town,  district, 


SELECT  VOCABULARY . 


323 


mountain,  and  river  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Arcadia. 

Suf-fe/te§  (from  the  Phoenician  sho- 
fet,  a judge),  the  name  of  the  two 
chief  magistrates  or  kings  who 
presided  over  the  Senate  at 
Carthage. 

Syr-a-cuse',  Greek  SuraJcousai,  Latin 
Syracusce,  the  most  important 
Greek  city  in  Sicily. 

Ta-gUnae,  a village  E.  of  the  Upper 
Tiber. 

TaUent,  Latin  talentum,  Greek  ta- 
lanton,  literally  a weight;  a Grecian 
weight;  a sum  of  money.  The 
Attic  talent  of  silver  contained 
00  minae,  or  6,000  drachmas,  and 
w7as  equal  to  £243  15s.  Approxi- 
mately calculate  a talent  at  £250, 
or  $1,250.  A mina  was  equal  to 
£4  Is.  3 d.,  or  $22.32. 

Tar-quiiUi  us  Su-per/bus,  one  of 
the  Tarquins,  a family  of  Greek 
extraction. 

Tas'so,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
poets  of  Italy ; he  flourished  about 
a.d.  1575. 

Ta-yg'e-tuSjTa'y-ge'ta  (Virgil),  Gr. 
Taugeton , the  loftiest  mountain  in 
Peloponnesus ; the  range  is  now 
called  Pentedaktulos , that  is,  five- 
fingered. 

Te'gea  (Greek),  one  of  the  most 
ancient  towns  of  Arcadia. 

TeUas,  or  Te'jas,  te'yas,  king  of 
the  Goths. 

Tha'leg  (Greek),  the  Ionian  philoso- 
pher of  Miletus,  was  reckoned 
among  the  Seven  Sages. 


Thap'sus,  Greek  Thapsos,  a city  in 
Africa  Propria. 

The/bes,  thebz,  Greek  Thebai,  Latin 
Thebae , name  of  the  chief  city  of 
Boeotia ; also  of  a city  in  Egypt. 

TherTnus,  Tlierma,  Thermum,  Gr. 
Thermon,  the  chief  city  of  Aetolia. 

The'o-do/si-us,  the-o-do'shi-us,  the 
Great,  Roman  emperor  of  the 
East. 

Tlies-motlVe-tse,  Gr.  Thesmothetai , 
literally  law-givers,  were  the  six 
junior  archons  at  Athens. 

The'teg  (Greek),  literally  serfs ; the 
fourth  class  of  Athenian  citizens 
under  Solon's  division,  composed 
of  all  possessed  of  less  than  200 
medimni. 

Thor,  the  god  of  thunder ; his  name 
gives  us  Thursday , and  his  attri- 
bute to  the  Germans  their  Bon- 
ner stag. 

Thra/ce,  thras,  Gr.  Thrake , etc.,  Lat. 
Tliracia , a province  of  Northern 
Greece  from  Macedonia  to  the 
Euxine,  along  the  Aegean  and 
Propontis;  also  of  a district  in 
Asia  Minor  called  Bithynian 
Thrace. 

Tib'e-rUnus  (Latin),  the  guardian 
god  of  the  river  Tiber. 

Ti-cUnus,  Greek  Tikinos,  the  mod- 
ern Ticino , a considerable  river  in 
Northern  Italy. 

TiUsit,  a town  on  the  Memel  or 
Niemen,  in  East  Prussia. 

Ti-mdc/ra-gy,  Greek  timokratia, 
from  time,  assessment,  and  kra - 
tein,  to  rule;  a form  of  govern- 
ment under  which  public  offices 
and  political  privileges  are  dis- 


824 


SELECT  VOCABULARY. 


tributed  according  to  a rating  of 
property. 

To'ga  (Latin),  literally  a covering, 
the  gown  or  outer  garment  of  a 
Roman  citizen ; the  toga  praetexta , 
bordered  with  purple,  was  worn 
by  the  higher  magistrates  and 
by  free-born  children  until  they 
assumed  the  toga  virilis , or  the 
manly  gown;  candidates  for  office 
wore  a white  ( candidus , white) 
toga,  mourners  one  of  dark  gray. 

Tra'chas  (Greek),  a city  of  Malis, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Oeta. 

Tras'y-me'ims,  or  Tras'i-me/nus 
La/cus,  a large  lake  in  Etruria. 

Troe-ze/ne,  Greek  Troizen,  a city  of 
Peloponnesus. 

Ty  plion,  Greek  Tuphaon , Tuphoeus, 
a fabulous  monster. 

Tyre,  tir,  Greek  Turos,  Latin  Tyrus, 
the  most  celebrated  and  important 
city  of  Phoenicia. 

IPkraine,  u'Tcran,  or  oo-lcran 7,  a dis- 
trict in  Southern  Russia. 

U'ti-ca,  an  old  town  in  Africa  Pro- 
pria, north  of  Carthage. 

IPtrecht,  u'trekt,  name  of  a city 
and  province  in  Holland. 

Van/da-li,  the  Yandals,  originally 
a German  nation,  moved  during 
the  Migration  of  Nations  through 
Gaul  to  Spain,  and,  pushed  by 


the  Visigoths,  seized  North  Africa, 
a.d.  429. 

Ve-nu/si-a,  the  modern  Venosa , a 
city  of  Apulia,  on  the  Appian 
Way. 

Vincennes,  ving-senn 7 (French),  a 
village  now  included  within  the 
fortifications  of  Paris. 

Vit/iges,  vit'i-ges,  a king  of  the  bar- 
barians. 

Vol/ga,  or  WoPga,  ancient  Rha r 
the  name  of  a river  of  the  Rus- 
sian empire,  and  the  largest  in 
Europe. 

Vol-taire7,  v dl-tar f (French),  name 
of  the  famous  author. 

Wil/na,  also  VrPna  and  ViPiio. 
a city  on  the  Vilia,  in  W.  Russia. 
473  miles  S.W.  of  St.  Petersburg. 

Wittekind,  vit'te-kind  (Old  High 
German),  literally  child  of  wis- 
dom. 

Xan-thip'pe  (Greek),  the  wife  of 
Socrates. 

Za'ma,  Greek  Zama  Meizon,  a town 
of  Numidia,  situated  five  days’ 
journey  S.W.  of  Carthage. 

Zeus,  or  Ze'us,  the  Greek  name  of 
J upiter. 

Zeuxis  (Greek),  the  celebrated 
painter. 


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